www.mariusvasile.com
Marius Vasile
Articolul nehotarat si articolul hotarat
Articolul nehotarat a se foloseste inaintea cuvintelor care incep cu o consoana sau cu unul din sunetele w si y (semiconsoane):
a book = o carte ; a window = o fereastra ; a year = un an
Articolul nehotarat an se foloseste inaintea cuvintelor care incep cu o vocala sau cu h mut:
an exercise = un exercitiu ; an hour = o ora ; an arm = un brat
In limba engleza, articolul nehotarat este acelasi pentru toate genurile si se foloseste numai la singular; el se traduce prin un sau o in functie de genul substantivului din limba romana:
a pupil = un elev, o eleva ; a desk = o catedra, un birou ; a boy = un baiat
Spre deosebire de limba romana, articolul nahotarat se foloseste in limba engleza inaintea numelor predicative desemnand sexul, profesiunea, titlul,calitatea cuiva etc.:
Jack is a boy. Ann is a girl. She is a teacher. He is a student.
Articolul hotarat in limba engleza este the. El se aseaza intotdeauna inaintea cuvintelor pe care le determina si are aceeasi forma pentru toate genurile, atat la singular, cat si la plural:
the teacher = profesorul ; the students = studentii ; the girl = fata
Genul substantivelor
In limba engleza sunt trei genuri:
a) substantivele care desemneaza persoane de sex barbatesc si uneori animale sunt de gen masculin:
father = tata ; dog = caine
b) substantivele care desemneaza persoane de sex femeiesc si uneori animale sunt de gen feminin:
mother = mama ; cat = pisica
c) substantivele care desemneaza obiecte, notiuni abstracte si animale, cand nu se specifica sexul, sunt de gen neutru:
chair = scaun ; horse = cal
Unele substantive care pot desemna atat persoane de gen masculin, cat si de gen feminin sunt de gen comun:
teacher = profesor, profesoara ; student = student, studenta ; pupil = elev, eleva ; friend = prieten, prietena
Pronumele personal
Pronumele personale in limba engleza sunt:
I = eu ; you = tu, d-ta, dv. ; he = el ; she = ea ; it = el, ea ; we = noi ; you = voi, dv. ; they = ei, ele.
Pronumele I (eu) se scrie intotdeauna cu litera mare, indiferent de locul sau in propozitie. He (el) se foloseste pentru persoane de gen masculin, iar she (ea), pentru persoane de gen feminin; it este pronumele personal pentru genul neutru, persoana a III-a singular, si inlocuieste restul substantivelor din limba engleza, adica cele ce denumesc lucruri si animale. In mod exceptional, se foloseste uneori pronumele he sau she pentru unele animale domestice, ca dog, cat. Spre deosebire de limba romana, in engleza este obligatorie prezenta pronumelui inainte de verb (intrucat engleza este o limba analitica si nu are desinente deosebite pentru fiecare persoana). I am a teacher (sunt profesor, profesoara)
you are boys (sunteti baieti)
he is a student (e student)
we are woman (suntem femei)
they are men (sunt barbati)
Pluralul substantivelor
Pluralul substantivelor se formeaza in general adaugand terminatia -s la forma singularului:
a boy - boys ; a desk - desks ; a pen - pens ; a cat - cats
Substantivele man si woman fac exceptie de la aceasta regula, avand pluralul neregulat:
a man - men ; a woman - women
Verbul TO BE
Indicativul prezent (The Present Indicative)
Forma afirmativa
(The Affirmative Form) Forma Interogativa
(The Interrogative Form) Forma negativa
(The Negative Form) Forma interogativ-negativa
(The Interrogative-Negative Form)
I am = (eu) sunt am I ? = sunt (eu) ? I am not = (eu) nu sunt am I not ? = nu sunt (eu) ?
you are = (tu) esti are you ? = esti (tu) ? you are not = (tu) nu esti are you not ? = nu esti (tu) ?
he is = (el) este is he ? = este (el) ? he is not = (el) nu este is he not ? = nu este (el) ?
she is = (ea) este is she ? = este (ea) ? she is not = (ea) nu este is she not ? = nu este (ea) ?
it is = (el, ea) este is it ? = este (el, ea) ? it is not = (el, ea) nu este is it not ? = nu este (el, ea) ?
we are = (noi) suntem are we ? = suntem (noi) ? we are not = (noi) nu suntem are we not ? = nu suntem (noi) ?
you are = (voi) sunteti are you ? = sunteti (voi) ? you are not = (voi) nu sunteti are you not ? = nu sunteti (voi) ?
they are = (ei, ele) sunt are they ? = sunt (ei, ele) ? they are not = (ei, ele) nu sunt are they not = nu sunt (ei) ?
In vorbirea curenta, se folosesc adesea forme contrase ale verbelor auxiliare (la afirmativ si la negativ). Formele contrase pentru verbul to be se obtin fie prin reducerea primei vocale a verbului si punerea unui apostrof intre subiect si verb, fie prin contragerea vocalei o din negatia not si inlocuirea acestei litere prin apostrof:
Afirmativ Negativ (2 forme posibile)
I'm I'm not / -
you're You,'re not / you aren't
he's, she's, it's he's, she's, it's not / he, she, it isn't
we're we're not / we aren't
you're you're not / you aren't
they're they 're not / they aren't
Nota: La cea de-a doua forma a negativului prescurtat negatia not este legata de verb, iar vocala o cade si se inlocuieste cu apostroful.
Pronumele si adjectivele demonstrative THIS si THESE
This desemneaza un obiect apropiat in spatiu sau timp.
El are aceeasi forma pentru toate genurile si se traduce prin acesta, aceasta, acest sau aceastã in functie de genul substantivului romanesc pe care il determina:
This student is good. (Acest /aceastã/ student/ã este bun/ã).
This poate fi atat pronume, cat si adjectiv demonstrativ.
This exercise is good. (adjectiv)
This is a good exercise. (pronume)
Forma corespunzatoare plurala pentru this este these = acestia, acestea.
These boys are pupils. (adjectiv)
These are good books. (pronume)
Nota: Adjectivul folosit atribut este asezat inaintea substantivului:
a good student, a bad pencil
Adjectivul
In limba engleza adjectivul este invariabil, avand o singura forma pentru toate genurile si pentru ambele numere:
a good boy = un baiat bun ; a good girl = o fata buna ; two good boys = doi baieti buni ; two good girls = doua fete bune
In limba engleza, adjectivele folosite ca atribute, oricate la numar, preceda in general substantivul pe care il modifica:
a good red pencil ; a bad brown paper
In exemplele: the sky is blue; the chairs are brown...adjectivele blue si brown sunt folosite ca nume predicative; ca atare, ele urmeaza substantivele pe care le modifica.
Genitivul in limba engleza
In engleza contemporana deosebim doua feluri de genitive:
1. Genitivul in 's (The Possessive Case, numit uneori si Saxon Genitive) sau genitivul sintetic, care se formeaza cu ajutorul apostrofului plus s ('s) adaugat substantivului care indica pe posesor, atunci cand substantivul este la singular, si al apostrofului fara s, atunci cand substantivul posesor este la plural (in cazul substantivelor cu pluralul regulat):
the student's teacher = profesorul studentului ; the students' teacher = profesorul studentilor
insa: the children's desks = bancile copiilor.
Genitivul in 's este folosit aproape exclusiv cu substantive care desemneaza persoane sau uneori cu substantive nume de animale:
John's hair is brown.
The pupil's book is on the table.
The dog's name is Spot.
2. Genitivul prepozitional (The Prepositional Genitive) sau genitivul analitic, care poate fi folosit atat pentru fiinte, cat si pentru lucruri:
The walls of the room are white.
The chair of the teacher is brown.
Constructii cu prepozitii
In lima engleza, ca regula generala si spre deosebire de limba romana, substantivul se articuleaza cand este precedat de o epozitie:
The flowers on the table are pink and blue. (Florile de pe masa sunt roz si albastre.)
The man is in the room. (Omul este in camera.)
The teacher's pen is on the desk. (Stiloul profesorului este pe catedra.)
Pronumele si adjectivele demonstrative THAT si THOSE
Pronumele demonstrativ that desemneaza un obiect mai departat in spatiu sau in timp. El are aceeasi forma pentru toate genurile si se traduce prin: acela, aceea, acel, acea, in functie de genul substantivului romanesc pe care-l determina:
That is a student. (Acela /aceea/ este student/a/.)
That poate fi atat pronume, cat si adjectiv demonstrativ:
That boy is a pupil.(adjectiv) (Acel baiat este elev.)
That is a wall.(pronume) (Acela este un perete.)
Pluralul lui that este those. El se traduce prin aceia, acelea, acei, acele:
Those girls are pupils. (Acele fete sunt eleve.)
Those are good pupils. (Aceiaa /acelea/ sunt elevi /eleve/ buni /bune.)
Numeralele cardinale
a) Numeralele cardinale reprezentand numerele intre 13 si 19 se termina in sufixul -teen:
13 thirteen ; 14 fourteen ; 15 fifteen ; 16 sixteen ; 17 seventeen ; 18 eighteen ; 19 nineteen
b) Numeralele cardinale reprezentand zecile intre 20 si 90 se termina in sufixul -ty:
30 thirty ; 40 fourty ; 50 fifty
c) Intre zeci si unitati se pun liniute de unire:
68 sixty-eight ; 23 twenty-three
d) Dupa sute, cand acestea sunt urmate de zeci sau unitati, se pune conjunctia and:
105 one hundred and five ; 738 seven hundred and thirty-eight ; 217 two hundred and seventeen
e) Numeralele hundred, thousand si million nu primesc terminatia -s cand sunt precedate de alte numerale:
300 three hundred ; 5,000 five thousand (fifty hundred) ; 2,000,000 two million
Nota: Aceste numerale (inclusiv ten) cand sunt folosite nedeterminat devin substantive si primesc terminatia -s:
Thousands and thousands of young people practise sports. (Mii si mii de tineri fac sport.)
There are hundreds of old trees in the park. (Sunt sute de copaci batrani in parc.)
f) Grupele de trei cifre reprezentand sute, mii, milioane etc. se despart prin virgula:
6,000 six thousand ; 1,000,000 one million
In schimb, zecimalele se despart prin punct:
1.5 one point five ; 8.56 eight point fifty-six sau eight point five six ; 0.4(.4) (ou) point four
g) Numeralul a (one) billion are sensul de un trilion in Anglia si un miliard in S.U.A.
h) Anii se citesc in grupe de doua cifre:
1968 nineteen sixty-eight sau nineteen hundred and sixty-eight
i) Numerele de telefon se citesc pronuntandu-se fiecare cifra:
163809 one-six-three-eight-o(ou)-nine
j) Numeralul cardinal se foloseste cand se indica numarul unei case, al unui tramvai, al lectiei etc. si el urmeaza substantivului respectiv:
no.12-number twelve ; tram 5-tram five ; lesson 2-lesson two
Numeralele adverbiale
once = o data ; twice = de doua ori ; three times = de trei ori ; four times = de patru ori s.a.m.d. (a.s.o. = and so on)
Cele patru operatii aritmetice de baza se numesc :
addition = adunare ; subtraction = scadere ; multiplication = inmultire ; division = impartire
THERE IS - THERE ARE
1. There is (forma de singular) si there are (forma de plural) reprezinta o constructie cu intelesul de se afla, este, se gaseste - se afla, sunt, se gasesc. De cele mai multe ori there is si there are se folosesc la inceputul propozitiilor precedand subiectul:
There is a bag on the writing-table.
There are not many mistakes in the dictation.
Are there many chairs in the room?
Is there a long ruler on the table?
2. Forma interogativa se obtine prin inversarea celor doi termeni:is there?, are there?
3. Forma negativa se construieste prin adaugarea negatiei not dupa verb: there is not, there are not.
Nota: Expresia there is sau there are nu trebuie confundata cu adverbul there (acolo).
There is a man there. (Se afla un om acolo.)
There are not many chairs there. (Nu sunt multe scaune acolo.)
Pluralul Substantivelor
a) Pluralul substantivelor in limba engleza se formeaza prin adaugarea desinentei -s la singular:
a student - students ; a teacher -teachers ; a pencil - pencils
Substantivele compuse din doua elemente formeaza in general pluralul prin adaugarea desinentei -s la forma de singular a ultimului element:
The test-papers are good. (Lucrarile de control sunt bune.)
b) Pronuntarea desinentei -s:
1. Desinenta -s se pronunta [z] dupa substantivele terminate in vocala sau consoane sonore ca b, d, g, l, m, n, v sau th[ð]:
a table - tables ; a pupil - pupils ; a pen - pens ; a chair - chaairs ; a wall - walls ; a flower - flowers
2. Desinenta -s se pronunta [s] dupa substantivele terminate in consoane surde ca f, k, p, t sau th[?]:
a book - books ; a set - sets ; a mistake - mistakes ; a sheett - sheets
3. Substantivele terminate la singular in consoane sibilante (-s, -ss, -se, -x, -z, -sh, -ge, -ch) formeaza pluralul prin adaugarea desinentei -es pronuntata [iz]; substantivul primeste astfel o silaba in plus:
a class - classes ; a box - boxes ; an exercise - exercises ; a brush - brushes ; a page - pages ; a bus - buses
Verbul TO HAVE
Indicativul pezent
Forma afirmativa
Forma interogativa
Forma negativa
Forma interogativ-negativa
I have=(eu) am have I? = am (eu)? I have not = (eu) nu am have I not? = nu am (eu)?
you have=(tu) ai have you? = ai (tu)? you have not = (tu) nu ai have you not? = nu ai (tu)?
he,she,it has = (el,ea) are has he,she,it? = are (el,ea)? he,she,it has not = (el,ea) nu are has he,she,it not? = nu are (el,ea)?
we have = (noi) avem have we? = avem (noi)? we have not = (noi) nu avem have we not? = nu avem (noi)?
you have = (voi) aveti have you? = aveti (voi)? you have not = (voi) nu aveti have you not? = nu aveti (voi)?
they have = (ei,ele) au have they? = au (ei,ele)? they have not = (ei,ele) nu au have they not? = nu au (ei,ele)?
Formele contrase, la afirmativ, negativ si interogativ-negativ sunt:
The Affirmative The Negative (2 forme posibile) The Interrogative-Negative
I've I've not / I haven't haven't I?
you've you've not / you haven't haven't you?
he's, she's, it's he's, she's, it's not / he, she, it hasn't hasn't he, she, it?
we've we've not / we haven't haven't we?
you've you've not / you haven't haven't you?
they've they've not / they haven't haven't they?
Nota: Expresiile have got si has got se folosesc in limba vorbita cu acelasi sens ca si have si has:
She has got much work to do (she has much work to do).
We have got many lessons today (we have many lessons today).
What have you got in this bag? (what have you in this bag?)
Adjectivele nehotarate SOME, ANY, NO
1) Some se foloseste in propozitii afirmative:
My friend has some books of geography.
They have some new curtains at the window.
2) Any se foloseste:
a) in propozitii interogative:
Has your friend any books of English history?
Have you got any red pencils?
b) in propozitii negative:
We haven't any lessons now.
There isn't any map on the wall.
Nota: Any folosit in propozitii afirmative are sensul de orice, oricare, orice fel de, indiferent ce, indiferent care:
Read any of these books. (Cititi oricare din aceste carti.)
Ask any student here. (Intrebati pe oricare student de aici.)
3) No se foloseste pentru exprimarea negatiei, atunci cand verbul propozitiei este la afirmativ:
We have no lessons now.
There is no map on the wall.
Nota: Adjectivul nehotarat no nu trebuie confundat cu cuvantul de negatie no, asezat inaintea unei propozitii si despartit de aceasta din urma printr-o virgula:
No, we have no lesson now.
Are you busy now? No, I am not.
Some si any pot fi folosite si ca pronume nehotarate
There are no mistakes in this exercise, there are some in the translations.
I have no questions to ask. Have you any?
Observatia1: Pronumele nedefinit corespunzator lui no este none = nici unul, nici una:
We have some English books, they have none.
Observatia2: Some poate fi folosit in propozitii interogative, cand are sensul de ceva, cativa, parte din, un oarecare numar.
Comparati:
Have you some money? (Ai ceva, niste bani?)
Have you any money? (Ai vreun ban?)
May I see some of your exercises? (Pot vedea cateva din exercitiile tale?)
Have you any exercise in this copy-book? (Ai vreun exercitiu in acest caiet?)
Adjectivele nehotarate LITTLE, A LITTLE ; FEW, A FEW
Little (putin) si a little (putin, ceva) ca adjective preceda substantivele desemnand nume de materie sau abstractiuni (substantive folosite numai la singular):
They know little English. (Ei stiu putina engleza.)
We are not so busy now, we have a little time for English. (Nu suntem asa de ocupati acum, avem putin (ceva) timp pentru engleza.)
Deosebirea intre ele este ca:
a) little se traduce prin putin, indicand o cantitate insuficienta;
b) a little se traduce prin ceva, putin, indicand o cantitate mica dar totusi suficienta.
He has little spare time for his friends. (Are putin (aproape deloc) timp liber pentru prietenii sai.)
He has a little spare time Tuesday. (Are (ceva) putin timp liber marti.)
Nota: Atat little cat si a little pot fi intrebuintate si ca adverbe:
He speaks little. (Vorbeste putin, aproape deloc.)
He speaks English a little. (Vorbeste putin englezeste.)
Few si a few sunt adjective determinative sau pronume si preceda substantivele folosite la plural:
Few students are absent. (adjectiv) (Putini studenti sunt absenti.)
A few students are in the teachers' study. (adjectiv) (Cativa studenti sunt in cabinetul de lucru al profesorilor.)
Have you many books? Yes, I have a few. (pronume) (Ai multe carti? Da, am cateva.)
Indicativul prezent al verbelor principale
Acesta se formeaza din infinitivul scurt (fara to) la care se adauga terminatia -s (sau -es) numai la persoana a III-a singular:
The day begins ; Then comes noon ; My watch goes too slowly ; It loses ; It gains ; It stops
Conjugarea verbului to begin la Prezent (Present Indefinite Tense):
I begin = (eu) incep ; you begin = (tu) incepi ; he, she, it begins = (el,ea) incepe ; we begin = (noi) incepem ; you begin = (voi) incepeti ; they begin = (ei) incep
1) Pronuntarea desinentei -s:
a) Desinenta -s se pronunta surd [s] dupa sunetele consonantice surde: [p], [t], [k], [f] si [θ] (in scris th):
to want - he, she, it wants ; to ask - he, she ask ; to look - he, she, it looks ; to stop - he, she, it stops
b) Desinenta -s se pronunta sonor [z] dupa sunetele vocalice si dupa sunetele consonantice sonore: [b], [d], [g], [ð] (in scris th), [m], [n], [l]:
to gain - he, she, it gains ; to see -he, she, it sees ; to give - he, she, it gives
c) Desinenta -s(-es) se pronunta ca o silaba separata [iz] dupa sunetele consonantice, in scris: -ss, -ce, -x, -ze, -ch, -sh, -ge:
to lose - he, she, it loses ; to teach - he, she teaches ; to dress - he, she dresses
2) Ortografia desinentei -s:
a) Verbele terminate la infinitiv in consoana sibilanta (in -s, -ss, ch, -sh, -x) primesc la persoana a III-a singular desinenta -es.
b) Exista numai doua verbe terminate in -o la infinitiv, care primesc desinenta -es:
to go - he, she, it goes = a merge ; to do - he, she, it does = a face
c) Verbele terminate in litera -y formeaza persoana a III-a singular in felul urmator:
- y precedat de o consoana se transforma la persoana a III-a singular in i, la care se adauga desinenta -es:
to try - he, she it tries
- y precedat de o vocala ramane neschimbat; el este urmat de desinenta -s:
to play - he, she, it plays ; to say - he, she, it says
Numeralele ordinale si numeralele
a)Numeralele ordinale:
(1) the first (8) the eighth (15) the fifteenth (22) the twenty-second
(2) the second (9) the ninth (16) the sixteenth (23) the twenty-third
(3) the third (10) the tenth (17) the seventeenth (30) the thirtieth
(4) the fourth (11) the eleventh (18) the eighteenth (40) the fourtieth
(5) the fifth (12) the twelfth (19) the nineteenth (50) the fiftieth
(6) the sixth (13) the thirteenth (20) the twentieth (60) the sixtieth
(7) the seventh (14) the fourteenth (21) the twenty-first (70) the seventieth
Numeralele ordinale, cu exceptia primelor trei, se formeaza din numeralele cardinale corespunzatoare, prin adaugarea sufixului -th.
Nota: Grupul de litere ve din five (5) si twelve (12) devine f in numeralele ordinale corespunzatoare: the fifth (al cincilea), the twelfth (al doisprezecelea).
Eight primeste doar un h: the eight (al optulea).
Vocala e din nine cade: the ninth (al noualea).
Vocala y de la sfarsitul zecilor se inlocuieste cu ie: the twentieth (al douazecelea).
b) Numeralele fractionare: fractii simple (Common Fractions)
1/8 (a) one eighth ; 2/7 two sevenths ; 1/3 (a) one third ; 3/5 three fifths ; 1/4 a (one) quarter (fourth) ; 1 1/2 one and a half
Nota: Datele se exprima cu ajutorul numeralelor ordinale (citite astfel chiar daca cifra respectiva este, formal, un numeral cardinal):
(On) the 1st of December ((on) the first of December)
December 1st (December the first)
March 16th (March the sixteenth)
June 23rd (June the twenty-third ; the twenty-third of June)
Pluralul substantivelor terminate la singular in -F, -FE
Se formeaza prin schimbarea consoanei f in v si adaugarea desinentei -es (la substantivele terminate in -f) si a desinentei -s (la substantivele terminate in -fe):
The leaf is green. (Frunza e verde.) ; The leaves change their colour. (Frunzele isi schimba culoarea.)
His wife is a teacher. (Sotia sa e profesoara.) ; Their wives work in a hospital. (Sotiile lor lucreaza intr-un spital.)
Exceptii: roof (=acoperis) - roofs ; cliff (=stanca) - cliffs ; handkerchief ((=batista) - handkerchiefs
hoof (= copita) - hoofs, hooves ; wharf (=chei, debarcader) - wharfs, wharves
Pronumele si adjectivele interogative WHAT si WHICH
What (ce) si which (care dintre, care anume) pot fi pronume sau adjective interogative. In primul caz ele sunt folosite singure, in al doilea, ele preceda un substantiv:
What book is this? (adjectiv) (Ce carte este aceasta?)
What is this? (pronume) (Ce este aceasta?)
Spre deosebire de what, which are intotdeauna un sens selectiv:
In which season is it cold? (In care anotimp este frig?)
Which of the students is John? (Care din studenti este John?)
Un al treilea pronume interogativ este who = cine. Acesta nu poate fi folosit ca adjectiv interogativ:
Who is this boy? (Cine este acest baiat?)
Who is your teacher? (Cine este profesorul vostru?)
Folosirea catorva prepozitii in limba engleza
at = la (static) arata locul I am at the faculty.
to = la (arata directia si se foloseste dupa verbe de miscare) I go to the blackboard.
Exceptie: I go home.
on = pe The book is on the desk.
= in ziua de (folosit pentru a arata data, ziua) There are no classes on Sunday.
He returns on the 2nd of June.
= la They live on a farm.
I am working on a report.
upon = pe (implicand si miscare) Put these books upon the others.
in = în (in cateva cazuri corespunde cu pe din limba romana) They are in the garden.
There is a plane in the sky.
There are boys and girls in the street.
The farmers are in the fields.
in se foloseste deasemenea cu substantive care exprima anul, luna, anotimpul sau partile zilei (cu sens adverbial) In summer we go on holidays.
It often rains in October.
I go to my lectures in the morning.
into = în (implica directia si patrunderea) Come into the garden.
Go into the study.
between = între (doua persoane sau lucruri) At the table I sit between Mother and Father.
The bookcase is between the window and the door.
among = printre (mai multe persoane sau obiecte) The teacher is among his students.
You are happy among your friends.
of = folosit in special pentru genitiv The pages of this book.
The cildren of my brother.
from = din, de la (aratand provenienta) He comes from London.
These apples are from that tree.
Adjectivele posesive
Formele adjectivului posesiv sunt paralele cu formele pronumelui personal: ele corespund celor trei persoane (singular si plural), avand forme deosebite pentru cele trei genuri ale persoanei a III-a singular:
I have a name. - My name is Tom.
You have a teacher. - Your teacher is a man.
He has a hat. - His hat is grey.
She has a new wrist-watch. - Her wrist-watch is fast.
It (the room) has two windows. - Its windows are open.
We have some friends. - Our friends are here.
You have two jumpers. - Your jumpers are made of wool.
They have fine shirts. - Their shirts are white.
Adjectivele posesive sunt:
my = meu, mea, mei, mele
your = tau, ta, tãi, tale
his = sãu, sa, sãi, sale, lui
her = ei, sãu, sa, sãi, sale
its = sãu, sa ; lui, ei
our = nostru, noastra, nostri, noastre
your = vostru, voastra, vostri, voastre
their = lor
Spre deosebire de limba romana, in limba engleza adjectivul posesiv se acorda in persoana si numar cu posesorul, nu si cu obiectul posedat:
my sister = sora mea ;
my teacher = profesorul meu ;
my friends = prietenii mei ;
my clothes = hainele mele
In timp ce in limba romana, adjectivul posesiv se aseaza dupa substantiv, in limba engleza el precede substantivul, nemaifiind necesara si folosirea unui articol:
What time is it by your watch?
Their socks have a nice pattern. (Sosetele lor au un desen frumos.)
In limba engleza, substantivele care desemneaza parti ale corpului si obiecte de imbracaminte sunt deseori insotite de un adjectiv posesiv:
It is cold. Put on your overcoat. (E frig. Pune-ti pardesiul.)
We see with our eyes. (Vedem cu ochii.)
He has a book in his hand. (Are o carte in mana.)
Put your hat on your head. (Pune-ti palaria pe cap.)
Pronumele posesive
Pronumele posesive inlocuiesc numele unui obiect posedat. Ele au forma asemanatoare cu cele ale adjectivelor posesive. Nu exista pronume posesive pentru persoana a III-a neutru, singular.
Pronumele posesive sunt:
Adjective posesive Pronume posesive
This is my book. It is mine.
This is your hat. It is yours.
This is his coat. It is his.
This is her bag. It is hers.
This is its leg.
(the leg of the table) -
These are our gloves. They are ours.
These are your umbrellas. They are yours.
These are their suits. They are theirs.
Pronumele posesive se acorda in numar si persoana cu posesorul, nu si cu obiectul posedat, ca in limba romana:
This dog is mine. (Acest caine este al meu.)
These clothes are mine. (Aceste haine sunt ale mele.)
Forma nepersonala –ING
1) Forma nepersonala -ing poate fi interpretata ca:
a) un participiu nedefinit (Indefinite Participle), aratand o actiune in desfasurare sau o stare:
.....briskly walking to or comig from..... - .....ducandu-se repede sau intorcandu-se de la
.....getting off the tram..... - .....dandu-ne jos din tramvai
Participiul nedefinit se traduce de obicei prin gerunziul romanesc.
b) un adjectiv verbal, traducandu-se in acest caz printr-un adjectiv sau printr-un substantiv cu valoare de atribut:
shining eyes - ochi stralucitori ; loving parents - parinti iubitori
c) un substantiv verbal:
The building of a house takes about six months. (Construirea unei case dureaza circa sase luni.)
d) un gerund, constructie specifica limbii engleze, caracterizata prin natura sa dubla verbala si substantivala. Se poate traduce in limba romana fie printr-o forma verbala, fie printr-una substantivala:
Learning a foreign language is not difficult. (A invata o limba straina nu este greu / Invatarea unei limbi straine nu este grea.)
They all enjoy seeing a good performance. (Le place sa vada un spectacol bun / Vederea unui spectacol bun ii incanta.)
Retineti ca forma verbala folosita dupa o prepozitie in limba engleza este gerund-ul si nu infinitivul sau conjunctivul ca in limba romana:
I think of going to a concert. (Ma gandesc sa merg la concert.)
He persists in making spelling mistakes. (Continua sa faca greseli de ortografie.)
2) Construirea formei nepersonale in -ing:
Forma nepersonala -ing se construieste cu ajutorul terminatiei -ing adaugata la infinitivul scurt al verbului:
to read - reading ; to be - being
dupa urmatoarele reguli ortografice:
a) verbele terminate la infinitiv in e mut pierd aceasta vocala inaintea desinentei -ing:
to write - writing ; to come - coming ; to love - loving
b) verbele monosilabice terminate intr-o consoana precedata de o vocala scurta dubleaza consoana finala inaintea terminatiei -ing, precum si verbele bisilabice, cand accentul cade pe ultima silaba:
to sit - sitting ; to stop - stopping ; to beg - begging ; to begin - beginning ; to prefer - preferring
c) verbele terminate la infinitiv in y precedat de o consoana sau de o vocala pastreaza terminatia neschimbata inaintea desinentei -ing:
to study - studying ; to play - playing
Nota: Trei verbe terminate la infinitiv in ie schimba aceste vocale in y inaintea desinentei -ing:
to lie - lying (a sta culcat, a zacea) ; to die - dying ; to tie - tying (a lega)
Adverbul de mod
Adeverbele de mod se formeaza prin adaugarea terminatiei -ly la adjective:
new(adj.) - newly(adv.) ; brisk - briskly ; usual - usually ; bad - badlly ; nice - nicely ; slow - slowly
Unele adjective au doua forme adverbiale, una identica cu aceea a adjectivului, cealalta formata din adjectiv prin adaugarea sufixului -ly; cele doua adverbe au sensuri deosebite:
adjective adverbe traducerea
hard (tare, greu) hard din greu, staruitor
hardly de-abia, cu greu
late (tarziu) late tarziu
lately in ultimul timp
near (aproape) near aproape
nearly aproape ca, aproximativ
They work hard. (Ei muncesc staruitor.) - I can hardly understand what they say. (De-abia inteleg ce spun.)
He never comes home so late. (Nu vine niciodata tarziu acasa.) - Lately he has been busy. (Este ocupat in ultimul timp.)
They live near. (Stau aproape.) - She nearly cut her finger. (Apropape ca s-a taiat la deget.)
Unele adverbe au aceeasi forma ca si adjectivele corespunzatoare:
fast(adj.) - fast(adv.) = rapid, repede, iute ; far - far = departe ; hard - hard = din greu
Substantivele care denumesc o materie ; Anotimpurile
Substantivele care denumesc o materie se folosesc fara articol:
Chalk is white. (Creta este alba) ; Grass is green. (Iarba este verde.) ; Ink is black, red and blue. (Cerneala este neagra, rosie si albastra.)
In limba engleza substantivele care denumesc anotimpurile se folosesc:
a) fara articol, daca sunt folosite ca substantive, in sens general:
Autumn has three months. (Toamna are trei luni.)
b) insotite de prepozitia in daca sunt folosite adverbial:
In autumn the days are not very long. (Toamna zilele nu sunt prea lungi.)
In winter it is sometimes very cold. (Iarna uneori este foarte frig.)
c) folosim articolul hotarat daca ne referim la un anumit anotimp:
The winter of 1972. (Iarna anului 1972.) ; The summer of 1963. (Vara anului 1963.)
Prezentul Continuu
In limba engleza exista doua sisteme de conjugare din punctul de vedere al aspectului, al duratei actiunii:
1) Aspectul nedefinit sau comun (The Common Aspect), care arata ca o actiune se petrece in mos obisnuit, fara a indica durata desfasurarii ei:
The family generally spend their evening together. (De obicei familia isi petrece seara impreuna.)
John writes his exercises and learns his lessons every day. (John isi scrie exercitiile si invata lectiile in fiecare zi.)
2) Aspectul continuu (The Continuous Aspect), care exprima o actiune in curs de desfasurare la un moment dat. Prezentul continuu arata ca actiunea are o oarecare durata in prezent, se petrece in momentul vorbirii:
What are they doing now? (Ce fac ei acum?)
They are listening to a beautiful concert. (Asculta un concert frumos.)
Prezentul continuu (The Present Continuous Tense) se formeaza cu ajutorul timpului prezent al auxiliarului to be, urmat de participiul nedefinit al verbului de conjugat.
Conjugarea verbului to read la Present Continuous Tense
Affirmative Form Interrogative Form Negative Form Interrogative-Negative Form
I am reading (citesc) am I reading? (citesc?) I am not reading (nu citesc) am I not reading? (nu citesc?)
you are reading (citesti) are you reading? (citesti?) you are not reading (nu citesti) are you not reading? (nu citesti?)
he, she is reading (citeste) is he, she reading? (citeste?) he, she is not reading (nu citeste) is he, she not readig? (nu citeste?)
we are reading (citim) are we reading? (citim?) we are not reading (nu citim) are we not reading? (nu citim?)
you are reading (cititi) are you reading? (cititi?) you are not reading (nu cititi) are you not reading? (nu cititi?)
they are reading (citesc) are they reading? (citesc?) they are not reading (nu citesc) are they not reading? (nu citesc?)
Formele contrase:
Affirmative Form Negative Form Interrogative-Negative Form
I'm reading I'm not reading -
you're reading you're not (you aren't) reading aren't you reading?
he's, she's reading he's, she's not (he isn't, she isn't) reading isn't he, she reading?
we're reading we're not (we aren't) reading aren't we reading?
you're reading you're not (you aren't) reading aren't you reading?
they're reading they're (they aren't) reading aren't they reading?
Nota1: Atat formele prezentului nedefinit, cat si cele ale prezentului continuu din limba engleza se traduc la fel in limba romana:
He reads interesting books. (El citeste carti interesante.)
He is reading a very interesting book. (El citeste o carte foarte interesanta.)
Comparati:
Present Continuous Tense Present Indefinite Tense
John is doing his homework. He does his homework every day.
I am learning English now. I learn English at the Faculty.
Nota2: Prezentul continuu poate fi folosit in locul viitorului pentru a exprima actiuni de care suntem siguri ca se vor infaptui:
They are broadcasting another English lesson next wednesday. (Vor transmite o alta lectie de engleza miercurea viitoare.)
Where are you spending your summer holiday this year? (Unde iti vei petrece vacanta de vara anul acesta?)
Nota3: Prezentul continuu al verbului to go + infinitivul lung al verbului de conjugat reda actiuni care urmeaza sa aiba loc intr-un viitor apropiat. In acest caz el exprima:
- o intentie (a intentiona, a avea de gand sa): She is going to make a report. (Va face un raport /referat/.)
I am going to ask them to come to supper. (Intentionez /am de gand/ sa-i invit la cina.)
- o probabilitate sau o certitudine: I think I'm going to have the flu. (Cred ca voi face o gripa.)
I think it is going to rain. (Cred ca o sa ploua.)
Nota4: Intrucat aspectul continuu exprima actiuni ca procese care se desfasoara in timp implicand ideea de durata, el nu poate fi folosit cu verbe ca: to arrive (a sosi), to jump (a sari), etc.
Categorii de verbe care nu sunt folosite la prezentul continuu:
Verbe care exprima procese
mintale sau actiuni ale
simturilor to understand = a intelege The students understand english.
to know = a sti They know English.
to think = a crede
insa to think = a gandi I think this is a good novel. (Cred ca este un roman bun.)
We are thinking of our holidays. (Ne gandim la vacanta noastra.)
to hear = a auzi They hear a boy calling.
to see = a vedea
insa to see = a se vedea cu, a se intalni cu I see an English paper on your desk. (Vad o lucrare de engleza pe biroul tau.)
He is seeing her every Sunday. (El o vede, o intalneste, in fiecare duminica.)
Verbe care exprima actiuni
sau stari nelimitate ca durata, sentimente to love = a iubi John loves his little sister.
to like = a placea I like the new buildings of our town.
to hate = a urî We hate war.
Substantive colective
a) Cuvantul family este un substantiv colectiv atunci cand se refera la membrii componenti ai familiei. In acest caz el este insotit de un verb la plural.
The family are listening to a concert.
The family spend their time together.
Referirea se face la membrii familiei respective.
b) Cuvantul people (oameni, lume) se acorda deasemenea cu verbul la plural:
Many people are in the street. (Sunt multi oameni pe strada.)
Nota: Atat family, cat si people pot fi si substantive individuale, in care caz au si forma de plural. People folosit ca substantiv individual are sensul de popor:
a family = o familie ; two families = doua familii
the Romanian people = poporul roman ; the peoples of Europe = popoarele Europei
Pronumele relativ pentru persoane
Who, pronume interogativ are aceeasi forma ca si pronumele relativ who folosit atunci cand substantivul antecedent desemneaza o persoana:
Who is there? (pronume interogativ) (Cine e acolo?)
The boy who is singing is John. (pronume relativ) (Baiatul care canta este John.)
Verbe modale
Verbele can, may, must se numesc verbe modale, pentru ca exprima atitudinea vorbitorului fata de actiunea pe care urmeaza sa o indeplineasca. Actiunea este considerata ca:
- posibila: I can read English now. (Pot sa citesc /stiu sa citesc/ englezeste acum.)
- necesara: You must do it today. (Trebuie sa o faci azi.) ; They must stay here. (Ei trebuie sa ramana aici.)
- permisa: You may go there (at) any time. (Poti /ai voie/ sa te duci acolo oricand.)
- probabila: It may rain. (Se poate /e posibil/ sa ploua.)
Aceste verbe se numesc si verbe defective pentru ca nu pot fi folosite la toate timpurile si modurile conjugarii, ele avand cel mult doua forme verbale (prezent si trecut):
Prezent Trecut
can could
may might
must pentru trecut se foloseste had to
Verbele can, may, must au urmatoarele caracteristici:
- sunt urmate de alte verbe la infinitivul scurt:
You may go there when your classes are over-Te poti duce acolo cand se termina orele.
We can go there by bus or we may take a tram-Ne putem duce acolo cu autobuzul sau putem lua tramvaiul.
He must keep indoors-Trebuie sa ramana in casa.
- formeaza interogativul si negativul ca si verbele auxiliare:
Can your friend speak English? -Stie prietenul tau sa vorbeasca englezeste?
He cannot speak it very well-N-o vorbeste prea bine.
Must you work all the time?-Trebuie sa lucrati tot timpul?
You must not smoke so much-Nu trebuie sa fumezi atat de mult.
May I ask you a question-Pot sa va pun o intrebare?
He may not find my address-S-ar putea sa nu-mi gaseasca adresa.
Nota: Forma negativa a verbului can se scrie intr-un singur cuvant: cannot, iar forma contrasa este can't.
- verbele modale nu primesc terminatia -s la Prezent, persoana a III-a singular:
She can translate an English text-Ea stie sa traduca un text englezesc.
It may be late. He must leave-Poate sa fie tarziu. Trebuie sa plece.
Nota: Verbul can este adeseori folosit cu sensul de a sti sa:
I can speak English. He can read well.
Forma interogativa
La Prezent, spre deosebire de verbele auxiliare si de verbele modale care formeaza interogativul prin simpla inversiune, celelalte verbe formeaza interogativul cu ajutorul verbului auxiliar to do la prezent (do pentru persoana I si a II-a singular si plural, precum si pentru persoana a III-a plural; does pentru persoana a III-a singular) urmat de infinitivul scurt al verbului principal.
Numai auxiliarul (do, does) se conjuga, verbul principal ramanand invariabil (la infinitiv).
Ordinea cuvintelor in propozitia interogativa:
Se remarca o inversiune partiala in ordinea cuvintelor:
verb auxiliar
(do, does) grupul subiect
(pronume sau substantiv) infinitivul scurt al
verbului principal alte elemente
sintactice
Do you like winter sports?
Does George help you?
Do these students study well?
Present Tense (The Interrogative Form):
to know to do (ca verb notional, de sine statator)
do I know? do I do?
do you know? do you do?
does he, she, it know? does he, she, it do?
do we know? do we do?
do you know? do you do?
do they know? do they do?
Forma negativa
La Prezent, forma negativa a verbelor (cu exceptia verbelor auxiliare si modale) se construieste cu ajutorul verbului auxiliar do urmat de particula negativa not si de infinitivul scurt al verbului de conjugat.
Ordinea cuvintelor in propozitia negativa:
subiect
(pronume sau substantiv) verbul auxiliar
(do, does) negatia not infinitivul scurt al
verbului de conjugat alte elemente
sintactice
I do not like rain.
She does not come with us.
to know to do (ca verb notional, de sine statator)
I do not know I do not do
you do not know you do not do
he, she, it does not know he, she, it does not do
we do not know we do not do
you do not know you do not do
they do not know they do not do
In vorbirea de toate zilele se foloseste forma negativa contrasa (sau forma negativa scurta). Aceasta forma se obtine din contragerea negatiei not cu auxiliarul to do:
to know to do (ca verb notional, de sine statator)
I don't know I don't do
you don't know you don't do
he, she, it doesn't know he, she, it doesn't do
we don't know we don't do
you don't know you don't do
they don't know they don't do
Forma interogativ-negativa
Forma interogativ-negativa se caracterizeaza prin folosirea inversiunii partiale (ca la interogativ) si a negatiei not (ca la negativ).
Ordinea cuvintelor in propozitia interogativ-negativa:
verb auxiliar
(do, does) subiect
(pronume) negatia not infinitivul scurt al
verbului principal alte elemente
sintactice
Do they not learn foreign languages?
Does it not suit you?
to know to do (ca verb notional, de sine statator)
do I not know? do I not do?
do you not know? do you not do?
does he, she, it not know? does he, she, it not do?
do we not know? do we not do?
do you not know? do you not do?
do they not know? do they not do?
La forma contrasa, folosita in vorbirea curenta, se observa o schimbare in ordinea cuvintelor. Negatia not se contopeste cu formele verbale ale auxiliarului si de aceea preceda subiectul:
to know to do (ca verb notional, de sine statator)
don't I know? don't I do?
don't you know? don't you do?
doesn't he, she, it know? doesn't he, she, it do?
don't we know? don't we do?
don't you know? don't you do?
don't they know? don't they do?
Nota: Cand subiectul propozitiei interogativ-negative nu este exprimat prin pronume, ci printr-un substantiv, grupul negatiei verbale do not (sau does not) va fi asezat inaintea subiectului:
Do you not like my compositions? (subiect - pronume)
Does not the teacher like my composition? (subiect - substantiv)
Insa prin folosirea formelor prescurtate, aceasta deosebire se elimina de la sine:
Don't you like my composition?
Doesn't the teacher like my composition?
Declinarea pronumelui personal
Cuvintele me, you, him, her, it, us, them sunt formele de dativ si acuzativ ale pronumelui personal. Deoarece joaca rolul de complement in propozitie, cazurile dativ si acuzativ sunt denumite si Objective Case - cazul complementului. Pronumele care urmeaza o prepozitie este intotdeauna la Objective Case:
Nominativ: I you he she it we you they
Dativ: (to) me (to) you (to) him (to) her (to) it (to) us (to) you (to) them
Acuzativ: me you him her it us you them
Forma dativului este uneori precedata de prepozitia to. Aceasta se intampla ori de cate ori intr-o propozitie, complementul indirect, exprimat printr-un pronume (sau substantiv), se aseaza dupa complementul direct. Aceasta reprezinta un mod de a sublinia, de a scoate in evidenta, complementul indirect. Astfel ordinea normala a cuvintelor este:
subiect
John predicat
gives complement indirect
Ann complement direct
a book of sketches sau
subiect
John predicat
gives complement direct
a book of sketches complement indirect (cu prepozitia to)
to Ann
Nota: Trebuie retinut ca ordinea cuvintelor in limba engleza este stricta si ca pozitia unui substantiv, inainte sau dupa predicat, determina functia lui sintactica (subiect sau complement):
John sees the bear. (complement direct) (John vede ursul.)
The bear (subiect) sees John. (Ursul il vede pe John.)
Cazuri speciale de ortografiere a pluralului
Substantivele terminate in y precedat de o vocala formeaza pluralul, in mod obisnuit, prin simpla adaugare a lui -s:
a boy - boys ; a day - days ; a toy - toys
Substantivele terminate in y precedat de o consoana schimba pe y in i si se adauga -es:
a study - studies ; a copy - copies ; a library - libraries ; factory - factories ; cityy - cities
Substantivele woollies (lucruri de lãna) si undies (lenjerie de corp) se folosesc numai la plural.
Timpul Trecut
Verbul in limba engleza are trei forme de baza: Infinitivul, Trecut si Participiul.
Toate verbele din limba engleza contemporana se grupeaza in functie de formele lor de baza (forma a II-a si a III-a) in doua mari categorii: verbe regulate (Regular Verbs) si verbe neregulate (Irregular Verbs).
Verbele regulate formeaza Timpul trecut si Participiul trecut prin adaugarea desinentei -ed sau -d la toate persoanele:
to call - ed - ed ; to dress - ed - ed ; to watch - ed - ed ; to love - d - d
Conjugarea unui verb la Timpul trecut: to work - ed - ed:
I worked / you worked / he, she, it worked / we worked / you worked / they worked
Desinenta -ed se pronunta [t] cand verbul se termina in consoana surda ( she asked [a:skt]; she looked [lukt] ) si [d]cand verbul se termina in consoana sonora sau vocala ( it gained [geind]; we listened ['lisnd] ). Ea se pronunta [id] cand verbul se termina in sunetele [t] sau [d]( she regretted [ri'gretid]; she added [aedid] ).
Daca verbul se termina la infinitiv in -e, sufixul -ed se reduce la -d:
to live - I lived ; to promise - you promised ; to receive - we received
Verbele terminate in -y precedat de o consoana schimba la Timpul trecut pe y in i la care se adauga desinenta -ed:
to try - I tried ; to carry - they carried
Verbele terminate in -y precedat de vocala il pastreaza si adauga numai desinenta -ed:
to play - they played ; to enjoy - you enjoyed
Verbele terminate la infinitiv in consoana precedata de o vocala scurta accentuata dubleaza consoana finala inaintea desinentei -ed:
to stop - we stopped ; to regret - she regretted ; to beg - he begged
Timpul trecut exprima:
a) o actiune trecuta, terminata, de obicei localizata in timp. El este prin excelenta forma verbala folosita in naratiune:
Yesterday we had a nice breakfast. (Ieri am avut un mic dejun delicios.)
I enjoyed the book. (Mi-a placut cartea.)
b) o actiune care s-a produs in mod repetat in trecut:
Last year they had English lessons twice a week. (Anul trecut ei aveau lectii de engleza de doua ori pe saptamana.)
Timpul trecut se poate traduce prin trei timpuri romanesti: perfectul compus, imperfectul si perfectul simplu, in functie de
context.
Timpul trecut al verbelor neregulate
Verbele neregulate nu formeaza Timpul trecut si Participiul trecut prin adaugarea desinentei -ed, ci au forme diferite.
Lista verbelor neregulate poate fi consultata in Anexa A.
Conjugarea verbelor auxiliare to be si to have la Timpul Trecut
to be
Affirmative Form Interrogative Form Negative Form Interrogative-Negative Form
I was was I? I was not (wasn't) was I not? (wasn't I?)
you were were you? you were not (weren't) were you not? (weren't?)
he, she, it was was he, she, it? he, she, it was not (wasn't) was he, she, it not? (wasn't he, she, it?)
we were were we? we were not (weren't) were we not? (weren't we?)
you were were you? you were not (weren't) were you not? (weren't you?)
they were were they? they were not (weren't) were they not? (weren't they?)
to have
Affirmative Form Interrogative Form Negative Form Interrogative-Negative Form
I had had I? I had not (hadn't) had I not? (hadn't I?)
you had had you? you had not (hadn't) had you not? (hadn't you?)
he, she, it had had he, she, it? he, she, it had not (hadn't) had he, she, it not? (hadn't he, she, it?)
we had had we? we had not (hadn't) had we not? (hadn't we?)
you had had you? you had not (hadn't) had you not? (hadn't you?)
they had had they? they had not (hadn't) had they not? (hadn't they?)
Trecutul continuu
Se formeaza din Timpul trecut al verbului auxiliar to be si participiul nedefinit al verbului de conjugat.
Timpul trecut continuu prezinta de obicei o actiune in desfasurare, in trecut, si se traduce in limba romana cu ajutorul imperfectului.
Conjugarea verbului to walk la Timpul trecut continuu:
Affirmative Form Interrogative Form Negative Form Interrogative-Negative Form
I was walking - (eu) umblam was I walking? I was not walking was I not walking?
you were walking - (tu) umblai were you walking? you were not walking were you not walking?
he, she, it was walking - (el, ea) umbla was he, she, it walking he, she it was not walking was he, she, it not walking?
we were walking - (noi) umblam were we walking? we were not walking were we not walking?
you were walking - (voi) umblati were you walking? you were not walking were you not walking?
they were walking - (ei, ele) umblau were they walking? they were not walking were they not walking?
Participiul trecut
Aceasta forma este echivalenta cu participiul trecut din limba romana:
covered - acoperit ; looked after - ingrijit
La verbele regulate participiul trecut englez are aceeasi forma ca Timpul trecut, iar la verbele neregulate el poate avea forme deosebite:
to wash - ed - ed ; to eat - ate - eaten
Printre verbele neregulate se numara si verbele auxiliare si verbele modale.
Absenta articolului la unele substantive
In limba engleza nu se articuleaza numele meselor: breakfast, lunch, dinner, supper.
De asemenea nu primesc articol: numele alimentelor, numele de substante si materiale in general, decat atunci cand sunt determinate de un atribut sau propozitie atributiva, sau cand acestea sunt cunoscute dinainte de cititor sau vorbitor, fiind determinate (in acest caz) printr-un adjectiv demonstrativ sau prin folosirea articolului hotarat, cu valoare anaforica (aratand ca notiunea este cunoscuta in prealabil de vorbitor sau cititor):
We have breakfast. Supper is quite nice.
We have plenty of bread and butter-Avem paine si unt din belsug.
dar:
The hot milk (which we get for breakfast) tastes good.
Helen regretted the cake (which she refused).
Nota: Observati, de asemenea, ca sunt lipsite de articol:
a) substantivele nume de abstractiuni: Time is up! Life is beautiful. (Viata e frumoasa.)
b) substantivele nedeterminate, folosite la plural, intr-un sens general, nedefinit:
meeting friends ; arranging things ; climbing hills ; social evenings
Prepozitii exprimand miscare
Prepozitii care arata starea pe loc
Prepozitii exprimand miscare (Prepositions showing direction)
over = peste The cat jumps over the box.
to = la, spre (directie) I go to the Institute every day. dar: In the evening I go home.
into = în (miscare) They come into the room. We translate from English into Romanian.
down = în josul They climbed down the mountain.
up = în susul They climbed up the the mountain.
through = prin They passed through a forrest.
out of = (afara) din He walked out of the house. The girl looked out of the window.
from = de la, din Mary comes from the library. I am busy from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m.
Prepozitii care arata starea pe loc (Prepositions showing place)
between = între There is a picture between the two windows.
among = printre Parents are happy among their children.
round = în jurul There is a large garden round the house.
above = deasupra A lamp hangs above the table.
behind = în spatele, îndaratul The blackboard is behind the teacher's desk.
at = la (static) At 6 o'clock we shall be at the library. When will you be at home?
in = în (stare pe loc) We are all in the classroom.
on = pe The clock is on the table.
under = dub, dedesubt The floor is under our feet.
by, near = lînga, alaturi de Come and sit by me near the fire.
before = înaintea, in fata In the morning he leaves before me. The man was waiting before the door.
in front of = în fata There are some trees in front of my study.
Viitorul
Viitorul este un timp analitic. Atat verbele regulate, cat si cele neregulate formeaza viitorul in acelasi fel:
We shall walk up to our room.
I shall tell you some jokes.
Andy will sing us some songs.
You will tell us some interesting stories.
Viitorul se formeaza cu ajutorul auxiliarelor shall la persoana I (singular si plural) si will la persoana a II-a si a III-a (singular si plural) la care se adauga infinitivul scurt al verbului principal.
La forma interogativa a viitorului are loc inversiunea partiala intre subiect si predicat:
Auxiliar Subiect Infinitiv scurt (al verbului principal)
Shall I come ?
Will you sing ?
La forma negativa, negatia not urmeaza dupa auxiliarul shall sau will:
Subiect Auxiliar Infinitiv scurt (al verbului principal)
We shall not come.
They will not walk up.
La forma interogativ-negativa, negatia not se aseaza dupa subiect cand acesta este exprimat printr-un pronume, iar in cazul unui subiect exprimat printr-un substantiv, negatia not se pune inaintea subiectului:
Will they not tell us some interesting jokes? (subiect = pronume)
Will not the man tell us a joke? (subiect = substantiv)
La forma contrasa, insa, negatia not se contopeste cu auxiliarul shall sau will si intotdeauna preceda subiectul:
Shan't we go to the movie? -Nu vom merge la film?
Won't the three men tell us the end of the story? -Cei trei barbati nu ne vor spune sfarsitul povestirii?
Conjugarea verbului la viitor - exemplu: verbul to come - came - come = a veni
Affirmative Form Interrogative Form Negative Form Interrogative-Negative Form
I shall (I'll) come Shall I come? I shall not (shan't) come Shall I not come? (Shan't I come?)
You will (you'll) come Will you come? You will not (won't) come Will you not come? (Won't you come?)
He will (he'll) come Will he come? He will not (won't) come Will he not come? (Won't he come?)
She will (she'll) come Will she come? She will not (won't) come Will she not come? (Won't she come?)
It will (it'll) come Will it come? It will not (won't) come Will it not come? (Won't it come?)
We shall (we'll) come Shall we come? We shall not (shan't) come Shall we not come? (Shan't we come?)
You will (you'll) come Will you come? You will not (won't) come Will you not come? (Won't you come?)
They will (they'll) come Will they come? They will not (won't) come Will they not come? (Won't they come?)
Nota: Prezentul continuu al verbului to go este adesea folosit, in special in vorbirea curenta, pentru a exprima, impreuna cu infinitivul lung al verbelor notionale, actiuni ce urmeaza sa fie savarsite sau sa aiba loc intr-un viitor apropiat fata de momentul vorbirii.
Constructia to be going + infinitiv inlocuieste viitorul cu shall si will si are de obicei o implicatie modala, de intentie (a avea de gand sa, a intentiona sa), de certitudine sau probabilitate (redata in romana prin viitor).
Their professor is going to lecture to them on Tuesday.
Profesorul lor le va tine o conferinta marti. (are sa le tina..... ; intentioneaza a le.....)
Forma interogativa, Forma negativa si Forma interogativ-negativa a verbelor la Past Tense
Formele interogativa, negativa si interogativ-negativa se construiesc la fel atat pentru verbele regulate, cat si pentru cele neregulate.
Ca si la Timpul present , aceste forme se construiesc analitic, folosindu-se timpul Timpul trecut al verbului auxiliar to do (did) si infinitivul scurt al verbului principal:
Did it upset you? I did not wish any other tea.
Ordinea cuvintelor in propozitia interogativa:
Auxiliar subiect verb principal (infinitiv scurt) alte elemente gramaticale
Did they come in time?
Did Mike see your work?
Ordinea cuvintelor in propozitia negativa:
Subiect auxiliar + not verb (infinitiv scurt) alte elemente gramaticale
They did not come in time.
Mike did not see your work.
Ordinea cuvintelor in propozitia interogativ negativa:
a) cand subiectul este exprimat prin pronume:
Auxiliar subiect negatie (not) verb (infinitiv scurt) alte elemente gramaticale
Did they not call you up?
Did we not meet last week?
b) cand subiectul este exprimat prin substantiv:
Auxiliar negatie (not) subiect verb (infinitiv scurt) alte elemente gramaticale
Did not Mary know your address?
Did not the boys understand the lesson?
Conjugarea verbului to bring - brought - brought ( = a aduce) la Timpul trecut
Affirmative Form Interrogative Form Negative Form Interrogative-Negative Form
I brought Did I bring? I did not (I didn't) bring Did I not (didn't I) bring?
You brought Did you bring? You did not (you didn't) bring Did you not (didn't you) bring?
He,she,it brought Did he,she,it bring? He,she,it did not (he,she,it didn't) bring Did he,she,it not (didn't he,she,it) bring?
We brought Did we bring? We did not (we didn't) bring Did we not (didn't we) not bring?
You brought Did you bring? You did not (you didn') bring Did you not (didn't you) not bring?
They brought Did they bring? They did not (they didn't) bring Did they not (didn't they) not bring?
Nota: La forma contrasa a interogativ-negativului ordinea cuvintelor este:
Auxiliar + negatie (forma contrasa) subiect verb principal (infinitiv scurt) alte elemente gramaticale
Didn't they follow their teacher's advice?
Didn't the visitors drink coffee?
Tipuri de propozitii interogative
a) Intrebarile generale, privitoare la predicat incep, de obicei, cu un auxiliar (to have, to be, to do). Printr-o intrebare generala, vorbitorul se intereseaza daca relatia intre subiect si predicat este pozitiva sau negativa:
Are you a student?
Is he very busy now?
Were you here at 6 o'clock?
Have you any question to ask me?
Has he many lessons for tomorrow?
Had you any mistakes in your last translation?
Does he speak English?
Do you go there by tram?
Did they help you?
Intrebarile generale cer raspunsuri insotite de yes sau no:
Are you very tired? Yes, I am (tired). No, I am not (tired).
b) Intrebarile speciale,privitoare la orice parte a propozitiei, incep cu un cuvant interogativ (who?, what?, when?, which?(care?), where?, how many?(cati?, cate?), how much?(cat?, cata?), how long?(cat timp?) etc.):
Who is he?
What are you reading?
When did you come?
Which English writer do you prefer?
Where does he live?
How many people did you invite?
How much did you pay for it?
How long did it take you to come here?
Raspunsurile la intrebarile speciale cer un raspuns precis, formulat printr-o propozitie enuntiativa care poate fi uneori si eliptica:
What is your name? My name is Nick.
Where is Mary? She is at the library, sau At the library.
When is your birthday? It is on December 10th sau On December 10th.
Nota: Atat pronumele, cat si adjectivele interogative exclud folosirea auxiliarului do atunci cand sunt subiecte ale propozitiei (sau fac parte din grupul subiectului):
Who speaks English here?
Which trolley goes to the Institute?
What lesson comes now?
Who came to your house yesterday?
Raspunsul scurt
In limba engleza vorbita, la o intrebare generala se poate da un raspuns scurt. Intr-un raspuns scurt, adverbul afirmativ sau negativ (yes, no) nu se foloseste singur; el este urmat de un subiect (in general, un pronume personal sau o particula introductiva ca de pilda there) la care se adauga verbul (la negativ, insotit si de negatia not).
Verbele to be, to have, to do si verbele modale sunt repetate singure in raspuns (infinitivul sau participiul verbului principal respectiv este omis):
Are the students here? Yes, they are. No, they are not (aren't).
Must there be a comma here? Yes, there must. No, there must not (mustn't).
Is it eight o'clock? Yes, it is. No, it isn't.
Can you ring me up later? Yes, I can. No, I cannot (can't).
Do they understand English? Yes, they do. No, they do not (don't).
Did he write to you? Yes, he did. No, he did not (didn't).
Does she enjoy the book? Yes, she does. No, she does not (doesn't).
Had you many classes yesterday? Yes, I had. No, I had not (hadn't).
Did it upset you? Yes, it did. No, it did not (didn't).
Substantive cu sens de plural si forma de singular
Unele substantive au forma de singular dar sens de plural. Din aceasta categorie fac parte:
advice - sfaturi
information - informatii
knowledge - cunostinte
furniture - mobila, mobilier
luggage - bagaje
He always gives me some good advice-El intotdeauna imi da sfaturi bune.
We have very little information on this subject-Avem putine informatii asupra acestui subiect.
His knowledge of English is perfect-Cunostintele lui de engleza sunt excelente.
The furniture in this room is new-Mobila din aceasta camera este noua.
They are sending the luggage by bus-Ei trimit bagajele cu autobuzul.
Singularul poate fi exprimat cu ajutorul expresiilor a piece of (o bucata de), an item of:
a piece of advice - un sfat
an item of information - o informatie
a piece of furniture - o mobila
a piece of luggage - un bagaj, o valiza
Substantivul news (stiri) intra in aceeasi categorie. El are forma de plural, sens de plural, care se acorda intotdeauna cu un verb la singular:
What is the news? -Ce vesti sunt)
Here is the news!-(Iata stirile!
The news is good-Vestile/ stirile sunt bune.
I heard a very good piece of news-Am auzit o stire foarte buna.
Viitorul de promisiune, hotarare sau comanda
I will be there-Voi fi acolo.
I will finish the work tonight-Vreau /sunt hotarat/ promit/ sa termin lucrarea asta seara.
Won't you have a cup of tea?-Nu vrei sa iei un ceai?
Auxiliarul will din exemplele de mai sus folosit in locul lui shall reda ideea de promisiune, intentie ferma sau hotarare. In aceste exemple, will este folosit cu valoarea sa modala, echivalenta cu a vrea, a dori.
Tot cu valoare modala poate fi folosit verbul shall + infinitivul unui verb principal, redand ideea de necesitate, obligatie, ordin:
You shall not go to the pictures-Nu te vei duce la cinema.
He shall come with you-El trebuie sa vina cu voi.
Viitorul in care will si shall apar cu implicatiile lor modale si nu ca simple auxiliare prezentand actiuni viitoare independente de vointa persoanei respective, se numeste viitor de promisiune, hotarare sau comanda.
El se prezinta deci sub urmatoarea forma:
I will come ; you shall come ; he, she, it shall come ; we will come ; you shall come ; they shall come
Nota1: Shall folosit in propozitii interogative se traduce, de obicei, printr-o forma a conjunctivului:
Shall I stop now? (Sa ma opresc acum?)
What shall I do? (Ce sa fac?)
Nota2: Will + infinitivul unui verb, folosit intr-o propozitie interogativa, reprezinta o formula de politete:
Will you help me with my exercise, please?-Vreti sa ma ajuati la acest exercitiu?
Will you close the door?-Vrei (vreti) sa inchizi (inchideti) usa?
Compusii pronominali ai adjectivelor nehotarate
(some, any, no, every)
Compusii pronominali ai adjectivelor nehotarate some, any, no si every se formeaza cu ajutorul cuvintelor body, one, thing si se folosesc astfel:
a) In propozitii afirmative:
somebody (cineva) someone (cineva) something (ceva)
anybody (oricine) anyone (oricine) anything (orice)
everybody (fiecare, toti) everyone (toata lumea) everything (tot, toate)
b) In propozitii interogative sau negative (cu verbul la forma negativa):
anybody (cineva, nimeni) anyone (cineva, nimeni) anything (ceva, nimic)
c) In propozitii negative (cand verbul este la forma afirmativa):
nobody (nimeni) no one, none (nimeni, nici unul (dintre)) nothing (nimic)
Somebody asked about you-Cineva a intrebat de tine.
I met someone you know-Am intalnit pe cineva pe care-l cunosti.
She told me something interesting-Mi-a spus ceva interesant.
Is anyone taking his advice? -Ii urmeaza cineva sfaturile?
Did he leave anything for me? -Mi-a lasat ceva?
They did not speak to anybody-N-au vorbit cu nimeni.
She did not meet anyone yesterday-N-a intalnit pe nimeni ieri.
I don't know anything about her-Nu stiu nimic despre ea.
Nobody comes this afternoon-Nu vine nimeni azi dupa amiaza.
Nothing was too difficult for him-Nimic nu era prea greu pentru el.
None of the students will be absent tomorrow-Nici unul dintre studenti nu va fi absent maine.
"Good morning, everybody (everyone)."-Buna dimineata tuturor.
In the evening I found everybody at home-Seara am gasit pe toti acasa.
Everything in the house is clean and tidy-Totul in casa este curat si ordonat.
Nota1: Desi everybody, everyone si everything sunt intotdeauna folosite la singular, ele se pot adesea traduce cu forme de plural:
Everybody is working well-Fiecare, toata lumea, toti lucreaza bine.
Nota2: Formele anybody, anyone, sau anything folosite in propozitiile afirmative au intelesul de oricine sau orice:
Anybody can do it-Oricine poate sa o faca.
You may ask anyone you like-Poti sa intrebi pe oricine doresti /vrei.
Take anything you find in the refrigerator-Ia orice gasesti in frigider.
Nota3: Pronumele compuse nehotarate somebody, someone precum si anybody, anyone sau nobody pot fi folosite si la cazul genitiv
Somebody's hat was there-Palaria cuiva era acolo.
I see someone's letter on the table-Vad scrisoarea cuiva pe masa.
Is she anybody's relative?-Este ea ruda cuiva?
I cannot see anyone's fault in that-Nu vad sa fie greseala cuiva in asta.
Comparatia adjectivelor
Comparativul
a) Comparativul de superioritate se formeaza prin adaugarea terminatiei -er adjectivului la gradul pozitiv. Al doilea termen de comparatie se introduce prin conjunctia than (= decat).
no bigger than ; no heavier than
Sufixul -er se adauga numai adjectivelor de o silaba. Celelalte formeaza comparativul cu ajutorul adverbului more care se aseaza inaintea unui adjectiv de mai multe silabe:
The book was more interesting than the picture-Cartea a fost mai interesanta decat filmul.
She is younger and more beautiful than her sister-Ea este mai tanara si mai frumoasa decat sora ei.
Nota: Adjectivele bisilabice terminate in -y, -ow, -le, -ble formeaza comparativul tot prin adaugarea terminatiei -er la cazul pozitiv:
This lesson is easier than the other one-Lectia aceasta este mai usoara decat cealalta.
My street is narrower than that one-Strada mea e mai ingusta decat aceea.
In privinta ortografiei trebuie retinute urmatoarele reguli:
- daca adjectivul se termina in -e se dauga numai r:
large - larger
- daca adjectivul se termina in -y, acesta se inlocuieste cu i (daca y este precedat de o consoana):
heavy - heavier
- daca adjectivul se termina in -y, precedat de o vocala, terminatia -er se adauga dupa y fara nici o alta schimbare:
gay (vesel) - gayer
- daca adjectivul se termina intr-o consoana precedata de o vocala scurta, consoana se dubleaza adaugand terminatia -er:
hot - hotter
b) Comparativul de egalitate este exprimat cu ajutorul unui adjectiv precedat si urmat de conjunctia as:
In spring the days are as long as the nights-Primavara zilele sunt egale cu noptile.
This book is as interesting as the other one-Cartea aceasta este la fel de interesanta ca cealalta.
c) Comparativul de inferioritate este exprimat printr-un adjectiv precedat de not so si urmat de as:
Gasoline is not so heavy as oil.
A car is not so fast as a plane-Automobilul nu este la fel de rapid ca avionul.
Se poate spune insa si: A car is not as fast as a plane.
Pozitiv Comparativ de superioritate Comparativ de egalitate Comparativ de inferioritate
hot hotter (than) as hot as not so (as) hot as
strong stronger (than) as strong as not so (as) strong as
happy happier (than) as happy as not so (as) happy as
important more important (than) as important as not so (as) important as
Superlativul
Adjectivele scurte formeaza superlativul cu ajutorul terminatiei -est:
big - bigger - the biggest
large - larger - the largest
thick - thicher - the thickest
happy - happier - the happiest
Adjectivele mai lungi de doua silabe formeaza gradul superlativ cu ajutorul cuvantului most, asezat inaintea adjectivului:
important - more important - the most important (of all)
beautiful - more beautiful - the most beautiful (of all)
Observati prezenta obligatorie a articolului inaintea adjectivului la gradul superlativ si prepozitia of dupa acesta.
Superlativul absolut se formeaza folosind adverbul very sau most (fara articol) inaintea adjectivului la gradul pozitiv:
It is very (most) important. (Este foarte / cat se poate de important.)
Si adverbele au grade de comparatie asemanatoare cu cele ale adjectivelor; la superlativ insa acestea nu primesc articol:
Speak louder, nobody can hear you-Vorbeste mai tare, nimeni nu te poate auzi.
This is the play I liked best-Aceasta este piesa care mi-a placut cel mai mult.
Imperativul
La persoana I singular si persoana a III-a singular si plural, imperativul se construieste cu ajutorul verbului to let, folosit ca auxiliar, si a pronumelui personal in cazul acuzativ.
Conjugarea verbului to say la imperativ:
Let me say! Let us (let's) say!
Say! Say!
Let him, her say! Let them say!
Propozitii eliptice
Early september and the leaves are beginning to fall.
Elipsa apare in exemplul de mai sus din motive stilistice, fiind mai potrivita stilului descrierii. Lipseste subiectul si predicatul: It is.
Contains one kilogram ; Gives heat - aici lipsa subiectului este un procedeu des folosit in anunturi, titluri de gazete, atunci cand subiectul se poate deduce din forma verbului la persoana a III-a. Scopul este de a face anuntul mai scurt si deci mai izbitor.
What about electric cars? - este de asemenea o propozitie eliptica.
Intotdeauna in propozitiile interogative care incep cu what about...? sau cu how about...? lipseste subiectul si predicatul:
What about your end-year exams? (Ce se aude cu examenele tale de sfarsit de an?)
How about going to the pictures? (Ce-ai spune sa mergem la cinema?)
Diateza pasiva
Pasivul se formeaza in limba engleza, ca si in limba romana, cu ajutorul verbului to be si cu participiul trecut al verbului de conjugat:
The earth can be seen-Pamantul poate fi vazut.
The shadows can be observed- Umbrele pot fi observate.
The braking system was switched on-Sistemul de franare era activat.
The earth is surrounded by a blue halo-Pamantul este inconjurat de o aureola albastra.
Nota1: Spre deosebire de limba romana, participiul trecut nu se acorda in gen si numar cu subiectul, ramanand invariabil.
Nota2: Sa nu se confunde formele aspectului continuu cu cele ale diatezei pasive.
Prima se formeaza cu participiul prezent (forma in -ing), iar cea de-a doua, cu participiul trecut:
Mary is sending an e-mail-Mary trimite un e-mail. - aspectul continuu
The e-mail is sent by Mary-E-mail-ul este trimis de Mary. - diateza pasiva
Constructiile pasive sunt urmate, de regula, de prepozitia by + un substantiv sau pronume, care arata sensul actiunii. Acest complement precedat de prepozitia by poate lipsi:
I was asked by our teacher-Am fost intrebat /rugat/ de profesorul nostru.
The book must be read by every student in the group-Cartea trebuie citita de fiecare student din grupa.
The letter was posted (by him)-Scrisoarea a fost expediata /de el/.
Ca si in limba romana, trecerea unei propozitii din diateza activa in cea pasiva comporta unele schimbari sintactice.
Complementul direct din propozitia cu verbul la diateza activa devine subiect al propozitiei cu verbul la diateza pasiva:
Amundsen discovered the South Pole in 1911-Amundsen a descoperit Polul Sud in anul 1911.
The South Pole was discovered by Amundsen in 1911-Polul Sud a fost descoperit de Amundsen in anul 1911.
He will write an interesting novel-El va scrie un roman interesant.
An interesting novel will be written by him-Un roman interesant va fi scris de el.
Spre deosebire de limba romana, in engleza si complementul indirect al verbului la diateza activa poate deveni subiect al constructiei pasive:
I showed him his mistakes-I-am aratat greselile.
He was shown his mistakes-I s-au aratat greselile.
I asked her some questions-I-am pus cateva intrebari.
She was asked some questions-I s-au pus cateva intrebari.
Astfel de verbe tranzitive, ca: to offer, to give, to tell, to refuse, to show etc., care pot avea doua complemente, unul direct si unul indirect, pot fi transformate in doua constructii pasive:
They offered her a bunch of flowers-I-au oferit un buchet de flori.
a) A bunch of flowers was offered to her.
b) She was offered a bunch of flowers-I s-a oferit un buchet de flori.
Michael told me the good news yesterday-Mihai mi-a spus vestea cea buna ieri.
a) The good news was told me by Michael yesterday.
b) I was told the good news by Michael yesterday.
(Vestea cea buna mi-a fost spusa de Mihai ieri.)
Nota3: Unele verbe din limba engleza, desi la pasiv, se traduc in limba romana cu diateza reflexiva:
Many problems have been solved-S-au rezolvat multe probleme.
Nota4: Diateza pasiva a constructiilor in care subiectul este fostul complement indirect al diatezei active se traduce in limba romana cu reflexivul insotit de un dativ:
I am shown-Mi se arata.
They will be given-Li se va da.
I was asked-Mi s-a cerut.
We were told-Ni s-a spus.
Echivalentii verbelor modale
Verbele modale can, may, must sunt si defective, ele neavand decat timpul prezent si trecut (respectiv numai verbele can si may), iar verbul must nu are decat prezent. Pentru a exprima celelalte timpuri ale acestor verbe, in limba engleza se folosesc unele verbe echivalente ca sens:
a) can - to be able (to) = a putea, a fi in stare
They won't be able to return so soon-Nu vor putea sa se intoarca atat de curand.
In the 3rd year you will be able to speak English-In anul III veti fi in stare /veti putea/ sa vorbiti engleza.
b) may - to be permitted (to), to be allowed to = a avea voie, permisiunea sa
Mike was allowed to leave sooner-Lui Mike i s-a permis sa plece mai devreme.
They were not permitted to speak Romanian at the English lesson-Nu li se dadea voie sa vorbeasca romaneste la lectia de engleza.
Nota: Verbul may poate exprima si ideea de probabilitate sau presupunere. Aceeasi idee poate fi exprimata cu ajutorul cuvintelor perhaps sau maybe, la care se adauga verbul respectiv la timpul cerut:
I may spend my summer holidays at the sea-side.
Perhaps I shall spend my summer holidays at the sea-side.
Se poate /s-ar putea/ e posibil/ sa-mi petrec vacanta de vara la mare.
Maybe he is right. Perhaps he is right.
Poate ca are dreptate /se poate sa aiba dreptate.
c) must - to have to (atunci cand verbul exprima ideea de necesitate) sau to be obliged to (ideea de obligatie).
You will have to go and meet the delegation-Va trebui sa te duci sa intampini delegatia.
Shall I have to stay till six o'clock? -I was obliged to get up very early-Va trebui sa stau pana la ora 6? A trebuit/ am fost nevoita sa ma scol foarte devreme.
Nota: In mod obisnuit, interogativul si negativul verbului to have to (a trebui) se formeaza cu ajutorul auxiliarului do:
You don't have to get up so early.
Where do they have to go tomorrow?
Does he have to bring the book?
Punctele cardinale
Substantivele care denumesc punctele cardinale (the directions): north, south, east, west pot fi folosite si ca adjective sau chiar adverbe:
The expedition reached the North Pole-Expeditia a atins Polul Nord. - adjectiv
They turned south-S-au indreptat spre sud. - adverb
Adjectivele derivate din numele punctelor cardinale sunt:
eastern = estic, de est ; western = vestic, de vest ; southern = sudic, de sud ; northern = nordic, de nord
Adverbele corespunzatoare sunt:
eastward(s) = spre est ; westward(s) = spre vest ; southward(s) = spre sud ; northward(s) = spre nord
Cand se denumesc regiuni situate intr-o anumita parte a unei tari, continent etc se folosesc litere mari: the Middle East, the Far West.
Retineti:
(on the) east of = la est de ; (on the) south of = la sud de ; (on the) west of = la vest de ; (on the) north of = la nord de
in the east of = in estul ; in the south of = in sudul ; in the west of = in vestul ; in the north of = in nordul
to the east of = spre est de ; to the south of = spre sud de ; to the west of = spre vest de ; to the north of = spre nord de
Folosirea articolului cu nume proprii
Spre deosebire de limba romana, in engleza se foloseste articolul hotarat cu substantive proprii, nume de rauri, fluvii, mari, oceane (the Danube, the Thames, the Black Sea).
De asemenea, se articuleaza numele
lanturilor de munti (the Carpathians), a grupurilor de insule (the Hebrides), a deserturilor (the Sahara) si a unor tari (the United States of America, the Argentine) precum si numele vapoarelor (the Transylvania) si al ziarelor (the Economist), al hotelurilor (the Hilton, the Lido).
Numele de persoane precedate de un substantiv care indica profesiunea, titlul etc. nu primesc articol hotarat: Captain Brown, Doctor Johnson, Miss Pinkerton, Sir John Robertson.
Numele de familie se pot articula numai cand sunt folosite la plural, in vorbirea familiara, pentru a desemna, ca si in limba romana, mai multi membri sau intraga familie:
They saw the Smiths and the Jacksons at the seaside-Ei au vazut familiile Smith si Jackson la mare.
Perfectul compus
Acest timp se formeaza din prezentul verbului auxiliar to have si participiul trecut al verbului de conjugat.
Conjugarea verbului to work la Present Perfect:
Affirmative Form (Contracted Form)
I have worked = (eu) am lucrat I've worked
You have worked = (tu) ai lucrat You've worked
He, she has worked = (el, ea) a lucrat He's (she's) worked
We have worked = (noi) am lucrat We've worked
You have worked = (voi) ati lucrat You've worked
They have worked = (ei, ele) au lucrat They've worked
Interrogative Form: Have I worked? = am lucrat (eu)? etc.
Negative Form: I have not worked = (eu) nu am lucrat ; I haven't worked etc.
Interrogative-Negative Form: Have I not worked? = nu am lucrat (eu)? ; haven't I worked? etc.
Spre deosebire de perfectul compus din limba romana, Present Perfect nu poate exprima actiuni terminate in trecut, fara legatura cu prezentul. O propozitie ca: Shakespeare a trait intre anii 1564 si 1616 nu poate fi tradusa in limba engleza decat prin Past Tense: Shakespeare lived from 1564 to 1616.
Prezent Perfect exprima:
1) O actiune petrecuta in trecut care are legatura cu prezentul. Aceasta legatura poate fi:
a) cauzala (actiunea trecuta are consecinte in prezent):
He has come. - El a venit. (el este aici)
I have brought the book. - Am adus cartea. (cartea este aici, iat-o)
b) temporala (actiunea inceputa in trecut se continua in prezent):
I have lived in Craiova for ten years-Locuiesc in Craiova de zece ani.
I have known Michael since childhood-Il cunosc pe Mihai din copilarie.
Nota1: For exprima durata actiunii, iar since exprima inceputul actiunii.
2) O actiune care a avut loc intr-un moment neprecis in trecut. In acest caz, Prezent Perfect se foloseste cu adverbe de timp nehotarat: always (intotdeauna), ever (vreodata), just (chiar acum), never (niciodata), often (adesea), seldom (rareori), sometimes (cateodata), already (deja) etc.:
I have never seen him before-Nu l-am vazut niciodata.
He has just come-A sosit chiar acum.
Nota2: In schimb, locutiunea adverbiala just now (adineaori) cere folosirea timpului Timpului trecut:
They arrived just now. I rang her up just now.
3) O actiune petrecuta intr-o perioada de timp nedeterminata indicata prin adverbe sau locutiuni adverbiale de timp ca: this morning, today, now, these days (zilele astea), lately, of late (in ultimul timp, de curand), (not) yet (/nu/ inca) etc.:
He has not arrived yet. (El nu a sosit inca.)
Perfectul compus continuu
Se formeaza din perfectul compus al verbului auxiliar to be si participiul nedefinit al verbului de conjugat.
El exprima actiuni incepute in trecut, de obicei recente, care se desfasoara inca in prezent sau se pot continua in viitor, in mod neintrerupt.
He has been working too hard all these days-A muncit prea mult in ultimele zile.
Prezent Perfect se traduce in limba romana cu perfectul compus si uneori cu prezentul:
The Gothic cathedrals have withdrawn within their walls-Catedralele gotice s-au retras intre zidurile lor.
The Electroputere-made power transformers have been exported for years-Transformatoarele de putere fabricate la Electroputere sunt exportate de ani de zile.
Uneori atat Prezent Perfect, cat si Prezent Perfect Continuu se pot traduce cu prezentul din limba romana:
It has been raining for three hours-Ploua de trei ore.
They have been friends for years-Sunt prieteni de ani de zile.
Comparati:
Prezent Perfect Timpul trecut
They have studied English for two years.
(Au invatat /invata/ engleza de 2 ani.) She studied English last year.
(Ea a studiat engleza anul trecut.)
He has been to the Danube Delta three times.
(El a fost in Delta Dunarii de trei ori.) He went there last year too.
(El s-a dus acolo si anul trecut.)
Have you ever travelled by air?
(Ai calatorit vreodata cu avionul?) Did you travel by air when you went to Bucharest?
(Ai calatorit cu avionul cand ai fost la Bucuresti?)
He has just come, give him a chair.
(A sosit chiar acum, da-i un scaun.) He came yesterday afternoon.
(El a sosit ieri dupa-amiaza.)
I have brought the dictionary, here it is!
(Am adus dictionarul, iata-l!) Last week Kevin brought me his dictionary.
(Saptamana trecuta Kevin mi-a adus dictionarul lui.)
In exemplele din coloana din stanga, apar unele adverbe de timp nedefinit care cer intrebuintarea timpului Present Perfect. Indicatiile de timp din coloana din dreapta se refera la actiuni terminate in trecut.
Conditionalul prezent
Ca si viitorul, conditionalul prezent se formeaza cu ajutorul verbelor modale shall, will folosite ca auxiliare, la forma timpului trecut (should, would), urmate de invinitivul scurt (fara to) al verbului principal.
Ca si la viitor, should se foloseste pentru persoanele I singular si plural, iar would pentru persoanele a II-a si a III-a singular si plural.
Conjugarea verbului to say la conditional prezent:
Affirmative Form (Contracted Form)
I should say (as spune) I'd say
you would say (ai spune) you'd say
he, she would say (ar spune) he'd say, she'd say
we should say (am spune) we'd say
you would say (ati spune) you'd say
they would say (ar spune) they'd say
Negative Form: I should not say (nu as spune) etc. (I shouldn't say)
Interrogative Form: should I say? (as spune?) etc.
Interrogative-Negative Form: should I not say? (nu as spune?) etc. (shouldn't I say?)
La forma interogativ-negativa, not se aseaza dupa subiect. La forma contrasa, not se contopeste cu auxiliarele should si would si preceda subiectul.
Nota1: Verbele auxiliare should si would isi pastreaza uneori sensul lor modal, respectiv would la persoana I forma afirmativa exprima intentie, vointa (la forma negativa), rezistenta, opozitie iar should (la persoanele a II-a si a III-a) - obligatie, necesitate, recomandare, sfat:
I called him but he would not come-L-am chemat, dar nu a vrut sa vina.
You should not smoke in the library-Nu trebuie /nu ar trebui/ sa fumati in biblioteca.
Foarte adesea, forma should + infinitivul are un sens apropiat de al verbului must.
You should work more-Ar trebui sa muncesti mai mult.
He should not smoke-N-ar trebui sa fumeze.
Nota2: Timpul trecut al verbelor may si can, respectiv might si could sunt folosite si ca forme ale conditionalului:
Might we not repeat?-Nu s-ar putea sa repetam?
They could do it alone-Ar putea sa o faca singuri.
Retineti ca verbul to want (a vrea, a dori) nu se foloseste la conditional si ca este inlocuit de verbul to like (a dori, a-i placea).
Pronumele relativ
In limba engleza exista urmatoarele pronume relative: who = care ; which = care ; that = care ; what = ce, ceea ce ; but = care nu, care sa nu.
I know the man who wrote this article-Cunosc omul care a scris articolul.
He showed me the novel which he was reading-Mi-a aratat romanul pe care-l citea.
The text that (which) I translated yesterday was very easy-Textul pe care l-am tradus ieri era foarte usor.
That is not what I want-Asta nu e ceea ce vreau eu.
There is no student but learns a foreign language-Nu e student care sa nu invete o limba straina.
Din punct de vedere sintactic, pronumele relative leaga propozitii secundare de propozitii principale, fiind in acelasi timp elemente ale propozitiilor secundare.
a) Pronumele relativ who:
Who se refera numai la persoane. El se declina la fel ca si pronumele interogativ who:
N. who = care
G. whose = al carui, a carei, al caror, ale caror(a)
D. (to) whom = carui(a), carei(a), caror(a)
A. whom = pe care
That is the girl whose brother came to us the other day-Aceea e fata al carei frate a venit la noi mai deunazi.
The boy to whom you were speaking is Peter-Baiatul caruia ii vorbeai era Peter.
The first girl whom I saw in the hall was Alice-Prima fata pe care am vazut-o in sala a fost Alice.
Uneori, whose poate fi folosit si cu referire la lucruri: A trade whose fame spread beyond Europe.
b) Pronumele relativ which:
Which se refera numai la obiecte, animale, abstractiuni si se declina astfel:
N. which = care
G. (of) which = al carui, a carei, al caror, ale caror(a)
D. (to) which = carui(a), carei(a), caror(a)
A. which = pe care
The book which I a reading is by a young novelist-Cartea pe care o citesc este /scrisa/ de un tanar romancier.
We saw a mountain whose top was covered with snow. (Am vazut un munte al carui varf era acoperit de zapada.)
Which cu sensul de ceea ce se poate referi la o intreaga propozitie:
I said nothing which could make him hungry. (Nu am spus numic care l-ar putea supara.)
c) Pronumele relativ that:
That se refera atat la persoane, cat si la obiecte, dar numai in propozitii relative restrictive:
His sister that lives in Bucharest has graduated from the University. (Sora lui /aceea/ care locuieste in Bucuresti a absolvit universitatea.)
Bring me the story-book that you spoke about. (Adu-mi cartea de povesti despre care ai vorbit.)
All the passengers and all the goods that were on board the ship were saved. (Toti pasagerii si toate marfurile care se aflau pe bordul vasului au fost salvate.)
That (nu insa whom sau which) este pronumele relativ folosit dupa substantivele precedate de adjectivele la gradul superlativ, de numerale ordinale, precum si de adjectivele all, any, si the only:
Mount Everest is the highest mountain that we know. (Everestul este cel mai inalt munte pe care il stim.)
She was the only person that I liked. (Ea a fost singura persoana care mi-a placut.)
That was the first composition that he wrote. (Aceea era prima compunere pe care el a scris-o.)
Come any time that suits you. (Vino oricand iti convine.)
Omisiunea pronumelor relative (whom, which si that):
Cand whom, which sau that au functia sintactica de complement, ele se pot omite:
That is the man (whom) we met yesterday. (Acela este omul pe care l-am intalnit ieri.)
Here is the dictionary (which) you wanted. (Iata dictionarul pe care il doreai.)
The noise (that) I heard was the wind. (Zgomotul pe care l-am auzit era provocat de vant.)
Insa:
The book which is on the table is a dictionary. (Cartea care este pe masa este un dictionar.)
Nota: Daca pronumele relativ este insotit de o prepozitie, omisiunea are loc cu mutarea prepozitiei dupa verb:
The man I spoke to was their teacher (to whom).
The boy I told you of is here (of whom).
Can you lend me the book you were talking about yesterday? (about which)
Astfel, o propozitie atributiva poate avea urmatoarele forme:
a) The house in which we live is comfortable.
b) The house which we live in is comfortable.
c) The house that we live in is comfortable.
d) The house we live in is comfortable.
Pronumele reflexiv si pronumele de intarire
In limba engleza, caeste doua categorii de pronume au aceeasi forma:
Pronumele reflexiv Pronumele de intarire
myself - ma, mie, imi etc. eu insumi, insami
yourself - te, tie, iti etc. tu insuti, insati
himself, herself, itself - se, lui (ei), isi, si etc. el insusi, ea insasi
ourselves - ne, noua etc. noi insine, insene
yourselves - va, voua etc. voi insiva, inseva
themselves - se, lor, isi etc. ei insisi, ele insele
Pronumele reflexive sunt folosite pentru construirea formei reflexive a verbelor, dar, spre deosebire de limba romana, in engleza sunt putine verbe reflexive. Adesea un verb reflexiv romanesc se traduce in limba engleza printr-un verb activ intranzitiv:
ma joc - I play ; ma spal - I wash (myself) ; ma gandesc - I think ; ma imbrac - I dress (myself)
Nota: In engleza moderna, vechile verbe reflexive sunt folosite ca verbe active (fara pronumele reflexiv), ca in cazul verbelor: to wash, to sponge (a se freca cu buretele), to dry (a se usca), to comb (a se pieptana), to shave (a se barbieri), to dress etc.
By the time you have washed and dressed breakfast will be ready. (Pana cand te-ai spalat si imbracat micul dejun va fi gata.)
Pronumele reflexiv se deosebeste de pronumele intaritor (desi identice ca forma) dupa sens si dupa locul pe care il ocupa in propozitie:
a) Pronumele reflexiv, avand functie de complement direct sau prepozitional, este asezat dupa verb:
He cut himself when shaving. (S-a taiat cand s-a barbierit.)
The boy cried when finding himself alone. (Baiatul a plans cand s-a vazut singur.)
The girl looked at herself in the mirror. (Fata s-a privit in oglinda.)
b) Pronumele de intarire, neavand nici o functie sintactica, este pus fie dupa substantivul sau pronumele pe care il subliniaza, fie la sfarsitul propozitiei.
I myself spoke to the manager. (Eu insumi am vorbit cu directorul.)
They themselves came here. (Ei insisi au venit aici.)
Peter answered the question himself. (Petre insusi a raspuns la intrebare.)
Mai mult ca perfectul
Mai mult ca perfectul (The Past Perfect Indefinite Tense) se formeaza din Past Tense al verbului auxiliar to have si participiul trecut al verbului de cojugat. Din punctul de vedere al formei, in limaba engleza mai mult ca perfectul este un timp analitic, pe cand in limba romana el este un timp sintetic.
Conjugarea verbului to take, took, taken la Past Perfect Indefinite Tense:
Affirmative Form (Contracted Form)
I had taken = (eu) luasem I'd taken
you had taken = (tu) luasesi you'd taken
he, she, it had taken = (el, ea) luase he'd, she'd, it'd taken
we had taken = (noi) luase(ra)m we'd taken
you had taken = (voi) luase(ra)ti you'd taken
they had taken = (ei, ele) luasera they'd taken
Interrogative Form: had I taken? = luasem (eu)? etc.
Negative Form: I had not taken = (eu) nu luasem ; I'd not taken etc.
Interrogative-Negative Form: had I not taken? = nu luasem (eu)? ; hadn't I taken etc.
The Past Perfect Indefinite Tense exprima:
1) ca si in limba romana, o actiune trecuta, anterioara altei actiuni trecute sau unui moment dat din trecut si se traduce de obicei cu mai mult ca perfectul (rar cu perfectul simplu sau cu perfectul compus):
I knew she had been ill. (Stiam ca fusese bolnava.)
They had walked only a few steps when they met him. (Facusera numai cativa pasi cand il intalnira.)
We had not gone far when a terrible storm broke out. (Nu ajunseseram prea departe cand se starni o furtuna grozava.)
Momentul trecut poate fi indicat:
a) printr-o expresie adverbiala de timp: by the end of the week, year, month (pana la sfarsitul saptamanii, anului, lunii) ; by that time (pana atunci) ; by the 10th of December (pana la 10 decembrie) etc:
They hadn't finished their work by the end of the week. (Nu-si terminasera lucrul pana la sfarsitul saptamanii.)
By the 10th of December I had seduced Otilia.
b) printr-o alta propozitie al carei verb este la Past Tense (pentru concordanta):
I knew she had left for the seaside. (Stiam ca plecase la mare.)
They had learned some English before they went to England. (Inainte de a pleca in Anglia invatasera putina engleza.)
2) o actiune inceputa inaintea unui moment dat in trecut si care continua si in acel moment.
They had been in the mountains for a week when we joined them. (Erau la munte de o saptamana cand ne-am dus si noi la ei.)
Nota: Ca si in cazul timpului Present Perfect, momentul cand a inceput actiunea e indicat de since (adverb, prepozitie sau conjunctie), iar durata actiunii e indicata de for (prepozitie).
He had not written a line since he arrived. (conj.) (Nu a scris /scrisese/ un rand de cand a sosit.)
He had not written a line since June. (prep.) (Nu a scris un rand din iunie.)
He had not written a line since. (adv.) (Nu a scris un rand de atunci.)
The weather had been rainy for fortnight. (Vremea era ploioasa de doua saptamani.)
Mai mult ca perfectul continuu
Mai mult ca perfectul continuu se formeaza din mai mult ca perfectul verbului auxiliar to be si participiul nedefinit al verbului de conjugat.
I had been taking - eu luasem ; you had been taking - tu luasesi ; he, she, it had been taking - el, ea luase
we had been taking - noi luaseram ; you had been taking - voi luaserati ; they had been taking - ei, ele luasera
Mai mult ca perfectul continuu se foloseste pentru a exprima actiuni sau stari in desfasurare neintrerupta, anterioare unei alte actiuni trecute:
I had been working for a long time when they returned. (Lucram de mult cand /ei/ s-au intors.)
She left the reading-room where she had been reading for some hourse. (Ea parasi sala de lectura unde citise cateva ore /in sir/.)
Nota: Mai mult ca perfectul continuu se poate traduce in limba romana prin imperfect sau mai mult ca perfect.
SHOULD + infinitiv = Echivalent al conjunctivului
In frazele: "Robin Hood gathered his men and discussed whether they should take part in the contest or not", sau "It was decided that although the risk was great, they should all go", constructiile should take part in si should go inlocuiesc modul conjunctiv (The Subjunctive Mood) care, in engleza contemporana, e pe cale de disparitie. Ele sunt forme ale conjunctivului analitic, construite cu ajutorul verbelor modale folosite ca auxiliare si al infinitivului fara to al verbului de conjugat. Dintre echivalentii conjunctivului (Subjunctive Equivalents) fac parte should + infinitiv, may + infinitiv si altele.
Conjunctivul analitic se foloseste intre altele:
a) in intrebarile indirecte care arata indoiala si care sunt introduse prin conjunctiile if sau whether:
She considered whether (if) she should talk to somebody about it. (S-a gandit daca sa vorbeasca /sau nu/ cu cineva despre aceasta.)
b) in propozitiile subiective (introduse prin expresii ca: it is strange, it is impossible, it is advisable, it is important, it is necessary):
It was desirable that we should invite him. (Era de dorit ca sa-l invitam.)
It is important that you should all be in time. (E important ca sa fiti cu totii la timp.)
It is necessary that everything should be ready by 5 o'clock. (E necesar ca totul sa fie gata pana la ora cinci.)
Viitorul in trecut
In propozitia: "... and hoped he would take part in the contest..." forma verbala would take part in (desi identica in forma cu conditionalul) nu reprezinta decat o actiune infatisata ca viitoare fata de un moment trecut, cunoscuta sub numele de viitor in trcut (Future-in-the-Past). Viitorul in trecut este un timp propriu limbii engleze. El este folosit numai in propozitia subordonata completiva, care depinde de o propozitie regenta al carei verb este la un timp trecut:
They said they would return. (Au zis ca se vor intoarce.)
We heard you would leave Craiova for some weeks. (Am auzit ca veti pleca din Craiova pentru cateva saptamani.)
Nota: Viitorul in trecut se traduce in limba romana prin viitorul I.
Comparatia neregulata a unor adjective si adverbe
Cateva adjective si adverbe au forme neregulate pentru comparativ si superlativ. Acestea sunt:
good (bun)
well (bine) better (mai bun, mai bine) (the) best (cel mai bun, cel mai bine)
bad
badly (rau, prost)
ill worse (mai rau, mai prost) (the) worst (cel mai rau, cel mai prost)
litlle (putin) less (mai putin)
lesser (de mai mica importanta, minor) (the) least (cel mai putin)
near (aproape) nearer (mai aproape) (the) nearest (cel mai apropiat)
(the) next (urmatorul)
far (departe) farther (mai departe)
further (ulterior) (the) farthest (cel mai indepartat - ca distanta)
(the) furthest (cel mai indepartat - ca timp)
old (batran, vechi) older (mai batran, mai vechi)
elder (mai mare - referitor la membrii unei familii) (the) oldest (cel mai batran, cel mai vechi)
(the) eldest (cel mai mare - dintre membrii unei familii)
late (tarziu) later (mai tarziu)
latter (cel din urma, din doi sau doua - ref. la ordine) (the) latest (cel mai tarziu, cel mai recent)
(the) last (cel din urma, ultimul - referitor la ordine)
Nota: Latter precedat de articolul hotarat the se asociaza cu the former (primul din doi, cel mentionat mai intai) si se traduce prin cel din urma, al doilea. In acest caz, the former si the latter sunt pronume:
John and Mary are my friends. The former is a student, the latter is still a school girl.
Each other si one another sunt pronume reciproce. Ele se folosesc de obicei in cazul dativ sau acuzativ si se traduc prin unul pe altul, unul altuia sau unii pe altii:
They help each other. (de obicei folosit pentru doua persoane)
They help one another. (de obicei folosit pentru mai mult de doua persoane)
Nota: In trecut exista o diferentiere stricta de folosire a acestor pronume reciproce (in functie de numarul persoanelor); in prezent, aceasta deosebire tinde sa dispara treptat:
They always tell each other (one another) what they think.
Adjectivele substantivate
Adjectivul poate fi intrebuintat ca substantiv, si in acest caz este, in general, precedat de articolul hotarat. Adjectivele substantivate desemneaza persoane si au sens colectiv. Desi forma ramane neschimbata, au inteles de plural si se construiesc cu verbul la plural:
the blind = orbii ; the dumb = mutii ; the deaf = surzii ; the sick = bolnavii ; the wounded = ranitii ; the young = tinerii ; the unemployed = somerii ; the needy = nevoiasii ; the rich = bogatii
In aceeasi categorie sunt incluse si unele nume de popoare (cele terminate in consoane suieratoare) derivate din adjectivele corespunzatoare:
the English = englezii ; the Japanese = japonezii ; the French = francezii ; the Dutch = olandezii ; the Swiss = elvetienii ; the Irish = irlandezii ; the Scotch = scotienii
Ideea de singular se obtine cu ajutorul cuvantului man:
the sick man = bolnavul ; the Englishman = englezul
Corespondenta timpurilor
In limba engleza, problema corespondentei timpurilor este mai complicata decat in limba romana. Datorita raporturilor logice de timp care se stabilesc intre diferitele predicate dintr-o fraza, un anumit timp verbal nu poate fi urmat de orice alt timp verbal. Astfel, in limba engleza, timpul verbului din subordonata este, in general, in stransa legatura cu verbul din regenta. Aceasta dependenta, numita corespondenta timpurilor (The Sequence of Tenses), este reglementata prin norme riguroase in ceea ce priveste frazele formate prin subordonare, in care predicatul regentei este la un timp trecut.
Corespondenta timpurilor in propozitiile completive directe
Regula1: Prezentul, perfectul compus si viitorul din regenta pot sa fie urmate in secundara de orice tip cerut de logica frazei.
He knows that /I am busy now/ I was busy yesterday/ I shall be busy tomorrow.
(El stie ca /sunt ocupat acum/ am fost ocupat ieri/ voi fi ocupat maine.)
They have told me that /she comes/ she came/ she will come.
(Mi-au spus ca /ea vine/ ea a venit/ ea va veni.)
They will tell me that /she has come/ she came/ she will come.
(Imi vor spune ca /ea a venit/ ea venise/ ea va veni.)
Regula 2: Un timp trecut (Past Tense sau Past Perfect) din propozitia regenta nu poate fi urmat in propozitia subordonata decat tot de un timp trecut (Past Tense, Past Perfect sau Future-in-the-Past).
He knew that /I was busy/ I had been busy/ I should be busy. (Stia ca eram ocupat/ am fost ocupat/ voi fi ocupat.)
a) Pentru a se arata simultaneitatea actiunilor din regenta si subordonata Past Tense e urmat tot de un Past Tense:
At first I thought it was good enough for me. (La inceput am crezut ca era destul de buna pentru mine.)
b) Pentru a se arata anterioritatea actiunii din propozitia secundara, Past Tense e urmat de mai mult ca perfectul (Past Perfect):
We told him that it had been a fine day yesterday. (I-am zis ca fusese o zi misto ieri.)
We told him the various stories we had heard about his girlfriend. (I-am spus diferite chestii pe care le auzisem despre gagica lui.)
c) Pentru a se arata posterioritatea actiunii din propozitia secundara, Past Tense e urmat de Future-in-the-Past (viitorul in trecut). Actiunea din subordonata este conceputa ca viitoare fata de cea trecuta din regenta:
She was sure that her boyfriend would come. (Era sigura ca ii va veni gagicu.)
He knew I should be busy the rest of the week. (Stia ca voi fi ocupat in restul saptamanii.)
EXCEPTII DE LA REGULA CORESPONDENTEI TIMPURILOR, CU VERBUL DIN REGENTA LA PAST TENSE
1) In propozitiile secundare prin care se exprima adevaruri generale, fapte universal cunoscute sau uzuale, se foloseste prezentul:
The schoolmaster told the children that the earth moves round the sun. (Invatatorul a spus copiilor ca Pamantul se invarteste in jurul Soarelui.)
The speaker said that the peoples want peace. (Vorbitorul a spus ca popoarele vor pace.)
2) Dupa un timp trecut in regenta, in secundara se foloseste orice timp (cerut de logica frazei):
a) in propozitiile secundare comparative:
He spoke english better than you /speak it now/ spoke it last year/ will speak it in two years.
(El vorbea engleza mai bine decat /o vorbesti tu acum/ o vorbeai anul trecut/ o vei vorbi peste doi ani.)
b) in propozitiile secundare atributive:
Last week I read the book which you are reading now. (Saptamana trecuta am citit cartea pe care o citesti tu acum.)
It was yesterday that I bought the magazine you are asking me about. (Ieri am cumparat revista de care ma intrebi.)
Corespondenta timpurilor in propozitiile subordonate temporale
In general, viitorul din principala este urmat de prezent in secundara temporala pentru a se arata concomitenta actiunilor (intotdeauna dupa conjunctiile if, till, until, as soon as, before, after, when) si de perfect compus pentru a se arata raportul de anterioritate:
They will call me up when they get home. (Ma vor chema la telefon cand vor ajunge acasa.)
We shall go there as soon as we have some spare time. (Ne vom duce acolo imediat ce vom avea putin timp liber.)
You will not see the town until you have crossed the bridge. (Nu vei vedea orasul inainte de a fi traversat podul.)
I shall go for a walk when I have finished my work. (Ma voi duce la plimbare cand voi fi terminat lucrul.)
PRINCIPALA RAPORT SECUNDARA
FUTURE SIMULTAN PRESENT
FUTURE ANTERIOR PRESENT PERFECT
Corespondenta timpurilor in frazele
If I had taken her word for it, nothing would have hapened.
(Daca as fi crezut-o pe cuvant nu s-ar fi intamplat nimic.)
If I had not established a new school of thought and behaviour, it would not have occured to me to write about it.
(Daca nu as fi infiintat o noua scoala de gandire si conduita, nu mi-ar fi venit in minte sa scriu despre ea.)
Frazele de mai sus sunt formate dintr-o propozitie subordonata conditionala, introdusa prin conjunctia if si o propozitie principala. Propozitia conditionala exprima conditia de care depinde realizarea actiunii din propozitia principala. Aceasta conditie poate fi probabila (reala), ipotetica (ireala), prezenta sau trecuta.
In frazele conditionale, timpurile se folosesc in functie de conditia exprimata in subordonata, dupa cum urmeaza:
1) CONDITIE REALA - PREZENTUL IN SUBORDONATA, VIITORUL IN REGENTA:
If a storm breaks out, we shall postpone our trip. (Daca izbucneste/va izbucni/ o furtuna vom amana excursia noastra.)
If you have no confidence in yourself, you will never succeed. (Daca nu ai incredere in tine, nu vei reusi niciodata.)
2) CONDITIE IREALA PREZENTA - PAST TENSE IN SUBORDONATA, CONDITIONALUL PREZENT IN REGENTA
If a storm broke out, we should postpone our trip. (Daca ar izbucni o furtuna, am amana excursia noastra.)
If you had no confidence in yourself, you would never succeed. (Daca nu ai avea incredere in tine, nu ai reusi niciodata.)
Nota1: In propozitiile subordonate conditionale care exprima o conditie ipotetica verbul to be apare sub forma were la toate persoanele, singular si plural:
If I were you, I should not worry. (Daca as fi in locul tau, nu m-as framanta/necaji/.)
If he were here, he would enjoy the scenery. (Daca ar fi aici, i-ar placea peisajul.)
Nota2: Cand in subordonata conditionala este exprimata o conditie foarte putin probabila, se foloseste should (la toate persoanele) si infinitivul scurt al verbului de conjugat:
If he should come, I should gladly see him. (Daca ar fi/daca s-ar intampla/ sa vina, l-as vedea bucuros.)
3) CONDITIE IREALA TRECUTA - MAI MULT CA PERFECTUL IN SUBORDONATA, CONDITIONALUL TRECUT IN REGENTA
If a storm had broken out, we should have postponed our trip. (Daca ar fi izbucnit o furtuna, am fi amanat excursia noastra.)
If you had had no confidence in yourself, you would never have succeeded. (Daca nu ai fi avut incredere in tine, nu ai fi reusit niciodata.)
INVERSIUNEA IN PROPOZITIILE SUBORDONATE CONDITIONALE (INVERSION IN SUBORDONATE CLAUSES OF CONDITION)
Conjunctia if poate lipsi din propozitia comditionala, in care caz se inverseaza ordinea dintre subiect si predicat. Aceasta inversiune e posibila numai cand predicatul contine un auxiliar sau un verb modal (should, could) sau cand verbele to be si to have sunt folosite ca predicate:
If I had time - Had I time
If he were here - Were he here
If he could work - Could he work
If he should ring me up - Should he ring me up
If I had seen her - Had I seen her
ALTE CONJUNCTII CONDITIONALE
Propozitiile subordonate conditionale pot fi introduse prin conjunctiile: if, in case - in cazul ca, on condition that - cu conditia ca, provided (that), suppose (supposing) that, unless (if not), etc:
Suppose he doesn't come, what shall we do? (Sa presupunem ca nu vine, ce vom face?)
He won't come to my party unless he gets my message in time. (El nu va veni la petrecerea mea daca nu va primi instiintarea mea la timp.)
NEITHER.....NOR ; EITHER.....OR
Neither.....nor sunt conjunctii coordonatoare disjunctive (coordinatig disjunctive conjunctions). Ele unesc doua parti de vorbire sau doua propozitii care exprima o alternativa, o alegere. Intrucat sensul lor este negativ, verbele din propozitiile introduse de aceste conjunctii se folosesc la forma afirmativa:
He could neither eat nor drink anything. (El n-a putut nici sa manance nici sa bea ceva.)
Neither Miss Shenstone, nor Mr. Monsoon had any satisfactory answer. (Nici D-ra Shenstone, nici Dl. Monsoon nu au avut vreun raspuns satisfacator.)
Deoarece neither.....nor se folosesc intotdeauna impreuna se numesc si conjunctii corelative (correlative conjunctions). Corespondentele afirmative ale acestor conjunctii sunt either.....or:
He will be here either at six or at seven. (El va fi aici sau la sase, sau la sapte.)
Auxiliarul de aspect frecventativ WILL – WOULD
he would say = spunea ; he would come down = cobora ; would leave me = ma lasa ; would continue = continua ; I would hear = auzeam ; he would reply = raspundea
Constructiile de mai sus exprima actiuni care se repeta sau care constituiau un obicei (in trecut) si sunt cunoscute sub denumirea de verbe folosite la forma frecventativa.
Forma frecventativa are numai doua timpuri: prezent si trecut. Ea se construieste cu ajutorul auxiliarului will la prezent (toate persoanele) si would la trecut (toate persoanele) la care se adauga infinitivul verbului de conjugat.
In limba romana forma frecventativa se traduce:
a) la prezent - cu prezentul indicativului:
He will sit for hours on a rock watching the boats. (El sta ore intregi pe o stanca uitandu-se la barci.)
When the cat's away the mice will play. (Cand pisica nu-i acasa, soarecii joaca pe masa.)
Children will be children. (Copiii raman copii.)
b) la trecut - cu imperfectul (sau cu constructia "obisnuia sa", urmata de verbul de conjugat):
Fishing and swimming with his friends, he would look at the boats going by. (Pescuind si inotand cu prietenii sai, el se uita la vasele care treceau.)
They would come and talk to her every break. (Ei veneau si vorbeau cu ea in fiecare recreatie.)
Forma frecventativa este folosita in mod obisnuit in limba scrisa, mai putin in vorbirea de toate zilele, in care este inlocuita de verbul used to.
Verbul modal SHOULD
a) It should not have creaked. (N-ar fi trebuit sa scartiie.)
In exemplul de mai sus, verbul modal should exprima o obligatie (constrangere) sau o datorie, in general, de ordin moral.
Nota: Should exprima o obligatie mai putin imperioasa decat shall (folosit la persoana a II-a si a III-a pentru formarea timpului Future of Command):
You shall translate it at once. (O vei traduce imediat.) (Pentru ca trebuie.)
He shall come here. (El va veni aici.) (Trebuie sa vina.)
Insa:
You should translate it at once. (Ar trebui sa o traduci imediat.)
He should come here. (El va veni aici.) (Trebuie sa vina.)
b) Should este folosit si pentru a exprima un sfat, o recomandare, o sugestie:
You should pay him a visit. (Ar trebui sa-i faci o vizita.)
You should not speak so loud. (N-ar trebui sa vorbesti asa de tare.)
c) Pentru a arata ca actiunea se refera la trecut se foloseste should + infinitivul perfect al verbului de conjugat:
You should have asked her. (Ar fi trebuit s-o intrebi.)
He should have come in time. (El ar fi trebuit sa vina la timp.)
d) Pentru a exprima o dojana, o dezaprobare, se foloseste should + negatie + infinitivul perfect al verbului de conjugat:
It shouldn't have creaked. (N-ar fi trebuit sa scartaie.)
You shouldn't have left so early. (N-ar fi trebuit sa pleci asa de devreme.)
e) Should este folosit si pentru a exprima o presupunere sau o probabilitate:
He should be at home by now. (Ar trebui sa fie acasa /pana/ acum.)
AS IF - AS THOUGH conjunctii comparative
As if, as though (de parca, ca si cand) sunt conjunctii comparative si introduc propozitii comparative care contin al doilea termen al unei comparatii stabilite de regenta:
You answer as if (as though) you did not know the rule. (Raspunzi ca si cum nu ai sti regula.)
They looked at me as though they had never seen me. (S-au uitat la mine ca si cum nu m-ar fi vazut niciodata.)
Dupa as if (as though) se foloseste Past Indefinite cand actiunea din propozitia principala si cea din subordonata au loc in mod simultan:
He spoke as if he knew everything. (Vorbea ca si cum ar sti totul.)
Dupa as if (as though) se foloseste Past Perfect cand vrem sa aratam ca actiunea din subordonata a avut loc inaintea actiunii din principala:
She cried bitterly, as if she had lost all hope. (Plangea amarnic ca si cum ar fi pierdut orice speranta.)
Verbele din propozitia subordonata introdusa prin as if (as though) se traduc in limba romana prin conditionalul prezent sau trecut.
He speaks Romanian as if he had lived in our country. (Vorbeste romaneste de parca ar fi trait in tara noastra.)
He talks as if he knew everything. (Vorbeste ca si cum ar sti totul.)
Nota: Forma de Past Tense a verbului to be folosit in propozitiile comparative este were pentru toate persoanele, singular si plural:
She looked as if she were tired. (Ea arata ca si cum ar fi obosita.)
I feel as if I were ill. (Ma simt ca si cum as fi bolnav.)
Comparative duble
In limba engleza se gasesc uneori comparative duble, care se traduc in limba romana prin:
a) din ce in ce:
In winter the weather gets colder and colder. (Iarna, vremea devine din ce in ce mai rece / se raceste/.)
My English lessons are more and more interesting. (Lectiile mele de engleza devin din ce in ce mai interesante.)
The patient is feeling better and better. (Pacientul se simte din ce in ce mai bine.)
b) cu cat ... cu atat:
The more we looked at it, the more we wondered at it. (Cu cat ne uitam la el mai mult, cu atat ne minunam mai mult.)
The colder the weather, the warmer I dress. (Cu cat e vremea mai rece, cu atat ma imbrac mai gros.)
The more English stories you read, the easier it will be for you to learn English. (Cu cat citesti mai multe povestiri englezesti, cu atat iti va fi mai usor sa inveti englezeste.)
In primul caz a) avem doua comparative in aceeasi propozitie, iar in al doilea caz b) avem in doua propozitii diferite doua comparative precedate de adverbul the (identic ca forma cu articolul hotarat.)
Verbul defectiv USED TO
We used to be very good friends. (Eram prieteni foarte buni.)
Verbul defectiv din exemplul de mai sus nu trebuie confundat cu verbul principal to use, care se conjuga la fel ca celelalte verbe regulate si se traduce prin a folosi, a intrebuinta. In exemplul nostru, verbul defectiv used to se traduce prin obisnuia sa fie (era odata pe vremuri). Acest verb are o singura forma - trecutul (pentru toate persoanele) - uurmata de un verb la infinitivul lung.
Nota: Forma used to poate inlocui trecutul formei frecventative, care este intrebuintat mai mult in limba scrisa:
They used to come and see us very often. (Obisnuiau sa vina sa ne vada foarte des.)
Exprimarea dimensiunilor in limba engleza
Adjectiv Substantiv Verb
long = lung length = lungime to lengthen = a lungi
high = inalt height = inaltime to heighten = a inalta
deep = adanc depth = adancime to deepen = a adanci
broad = larg breadth = largime to broaden = a largi
wide = lat width = latime to widen = a lati
strong = puternic strength = putere to strengthen = a intari, a consolida
The Danube is 2,860 kilometres long ; its length is 2,860 kilometres.
Adjectivul care exprima o dimensiune (latime, inaltime, adancime, lungime etc.) se aseaza dupa numeralul respectiv. Substantivele si uneori verbele derivate din aceste adjective sunt formate prin schimbarea vocalei din radacina si adaugarea unor terminatii
Intrebarea disjunctiva
Intrebarea disjunctiva insoteste propozitia enuntiativa pentru a intari si confirma intelesul acesteia. In limba romana, intrebarile disjunctive se traduc prin corespondentul: nu-i asa?
In limba engleza intrebarea disjunctiva este o intrebare scurta, care se formeaza repetand subiectul si verbul auxiliar sau modal corespunzator predicatului propozitiei pe langa care sta:
You are ready, aren't you?
It's rather cold today, isn't it?
You have written all your exercises, haven't you?
We must answer his letter, mustn't we?
They had a good time on their holidays, hadn't they?
Cand in propozitia enuntiativa se afla un verb notional, atunci in propozitia disjunctiva se foloseste verbul to do la timpul respectiv:
He gets home at three o'clock, doesn't he?
You saw their new flat, didn't you?
They write home every week, don't they?
He reads English novels, doesn't he?
Verbul din intrebarea disjunctiva se foloseste la timpul verbului din propozitia enuntiativa si la forma opusa acesteia:
a) daca verbul din propozitia enuntiativa este la forma afirmativa, cel din propozitia disjunctiva este la forma interogativ-negativa:
He can do it, can't he?
You began to study English, last year, didn't you?
b) daca verbul din propozitia enuntiativa este la forma negativa, atunci verbul din propozitia disjunctiva este la forma interogativa:
They do not leave on Monday, do they?
She has no lectures in the afternoon, has she?
You did not ring him up today, did you?
In mod obisnuit, partea enuntiativa a propozitiei disjunctive este rostita cu intonatia coboratoare, iar intrebarea propriu-zisa este rostita cu intonatia urcatoare.
Intrebarea alternativa
Intrebarea alternativa este tot o intrebare generala, care presupune doua alternative:
Will you stay here, or come with us?
Are they students or pupils?
Din aceasta cauza, intr-o intrebare alternativa exista intotdeauna conjunctia or (sau):
Have you already done your work, or will you do it tomorrow?
Shall I do it or will you do it yourself?
Are you going out or do you prefer to stay at home?
Intonatia generala a unei asemenea intrebari este urcatoare, tonul se ridica imediat inainte de conjunctia or in prima parte si coboratoare in a doua.
The Emphatic DO
Auxiliarul do este folosit pentru a sublinia cele spuse de vorbitor:
We really did enjoy ourselves. (Ne-am distrat, intr-adevar.)
They do like to meet us. (Le place /intr-adevar/ sa se intalneasca cu noi, sa se vada cu noi.)
That is just what I do mean to say. (Este exact ce vreau sa spun.)
You say I wasn't there, but I did go! (Spui ca nu am fost acolo, dar te asigur ca m-am dus.)
Do come here! (Te rog, vino aici!)
Do tell me what happend! (Te rog, spune-mi ce s-a intamplat!)
In propozitiile imperative afirmative, folosirea auxiliarului do face ca ordinul sau rugamintea exprimata sa fie redate pe un ton mai putin imperios:
Do stay a little longer. (Te rog, mai stai putin.)
Do write me a letter as soon as you arrive home. (Scrie-mi, te rog o scrisoare imediat ce ajungi acasa.)
Pronumele nehotarat ONE
One cannot doubt ... (Nu te poti /nu ne putem/ indoi ...)
One was constantly aware ... (Iti dadeai /ne dadeam/ seama permanent ...)
One poate fi:
a) numeral:
There was only one man in the hall. (Era numai un singur om in sala.)
b) inlocuitor al articolului nehotarat a, an in constructii de tipul:
One fine day ... (Intr-o buna zi ... )
One evening ... (Intr-o seara ... )
I haven't any stamp, will you give me one? (Nu am nici un timbru, te rog, imi dai unul?)
Atunci cand este asezat inaintea unui nume propriu, one capata sensul de un (o) oarecare:
David's mother married one Mr. Brown. (Mama lui David s-a casatorit cu un oarecare domn Brown.)
c) pronume nehotarat cu functie generica (1) sau anaforica (2):
1) In exemplele de mai sus (one cannot doubt si one was constantly aware), one este folosit generic in propozitii impersonale si se refera la oameni in general. El se poate traduce in limba romana prin persoana a II-a singular sau plural a pronumelui personal, persoana I plural a pronumelui personal sau prin pronumele reflexiv generic se:
One cannot live without working. (Nu poti /putem/ se poate/ trai fara a munci.) - the joke of the century :):):)
One must take into account the fact that... (Trebuie sa se tina /sa tinem/ sa tii/ seama de faptul ca...)
Pronumele we, you si they pot indeplini si ele o functie generica:
You cannot eat your cake and have it. (Nu se poate si cu varza unsa si cu slanina in pod :):):) )
We must always do our duty. (Trebuie sa ne facem intotdeauna datoria.)
They drink much tea in England. (Se bea mult ceai in Anglia.)
dar pronumele one, we si you, folosite generic, il includ pe vorbitor:
One cannot be happy if one does not love. sau We cannot be happy if we do not love. sau You cannot be happy if you do not love.
(Nu poti fi fericit daca nu iubesti.) --- really? :):):)
Pronumele they il exclude pe vorbitor:
They say he is a successful musician.
(Se spune ca e un muzician de mare succes.)
2) Pronumele nehotarat one poate fi folosit si anaforic, inlocuind un substantiv care a fost mentionat inainte pentru a evita repetarea acestuia:
I haven't got an india-rubber. Lend me one, please.
(N-am guma. Te rog imprumuta-mi una.)
In aceasta calitate el poate primi semnul pluralului:
My new shoes are less comfortable than the old ones.
(Pantofii mei cei noi sunt mai putin comozi decat cei vechi.)
d) Pronumele nehotarat one se foloseste ca inlocuitor al unui substantiv dupa adjective calificative (vezi exemplul de mai sus), dupa this, that, which, another, these, those, the other si dupa the next, the first, the last:
I don't like this hat. Please give me that one (another one, the other one, these ones, those ones etc.)
(Nu-mi place palaria asta. Te rog da-mi-o pe aceea /alta, cealalta, pe acestea, pe acelea etc/.)
John was the last one to leave.
(John a fost ultimul care a plecat.)
Nota1: One's este forma impersonala a adjectivului posesiv:
to do one's duty (a-si face datoria)
One should never forget one's friends. (Nu trebuie niciodata sa-ti uiti prietenii.)
Nota2: Oneself este forma impersonala a pronumelui reflexiv:
to cut oneself = a se taia
to hide oneself = a se ascunde
Articolul hotarat si articolul nehotarat
Intrucat articolul hotarat si articolul nehotarat au fost tratate sporadic in lectiile anterioare voi sistematiza aici notiunile dobandite pana acum despre articol, completandu-le cu unele noi.
1) Articolul hotarat (the) insoteste substantive folosite cu un inteles determinat, spre a le deosebi de altele din aceeasi clasa sau categorie. Substantivul poate fi deosebit de celelalte din clasa careia apartine, fie prin folosirea unor atribute, propozitii atributive etc., fie prin context, adica prin cuvintele sau propozitiile care-l inconjoara si care adesea arata ca substantivul respectiv este cunoscut (de vorbitor, cititor, ascultator) sau ca el e prezent in mintea acestora fiind amintit intr-o propozitie anterioara:
the lofty silhouettes of sky-scrapers
the quiet crystal air of a mountain peak
Articolul hotarat se mai foloseste:
a) cu substantive la singular care arata o intreaga categorie sau specie:
The cat is a graceful animal.
b) cu adjective substantivate:
the rich and the poor
The Chinese of New-York live in Chinatown.
The Negroes live mostly in Haarlem.
c) inaintea adjectivelor la gradul superlativ (relativ) si a numeralelor ordinale:
the tallest man-made structure
on the 87th floor
d) inaintea substantivelor precedate de o prepozitie, chiar atunci cand in limba romana substantivul e nearticulat:
in the street = pe strada
in the world = din lume
after the lesson = dupa lectie
Nota: Numele punctelor cardinale intra in aceeasi categorie, fiind articulate atunci cand sunt precedate de o prepozitie (in the north ; to the east) sau cand desemneaza o regiune, grup de tari etc., situate in aceeasi directie:
In the American Civil War the North fought against the South.
(In razboiul de secesiune, Nordul a luptat impotriva Sudului.)
e) articolul definit se mai foloseste cu o serie de nume proprii ca: unor tari (the United States of America, the Argentine, the Lebanon, etc.) ; nume de rauri, fluvii, mari, oceane (the Danube, the Black Sea, the Atlantic) ; numele lanturilor de munti (the Carpathians) ; numele deserturilor si a grupurilor de insule (the Sahara, the Hebrides) ; inaintea numelor unor institutii binecunoscute (the Metropolitan Museum, the Empire State Building) ; a numelor ziarelor (The New-York Times, The Washington Post) ; a vapoarelor (the Transylvania, the Carpati) si a numelor de familie folosite la plural, in vorbirea familiara (the Johnsons).
Nota: Nu se articuleaza numele strazilor, pietelor, parcurilor etc.: (Fifth Avenue, Picadilly Circus, Central Park).
Articolul hotarat the care provine dintr-o forma veche a pronumelui demonstrativ isi pastreaza insa sensul demonstrativ in unele expresii ca:
at the time- in acel timp
for the purpose - pentru acest (acel) scop
nothing of the kind - nicidecum, nimic de soiul acesta
the two - cei doi
2) Articolul nehotarat (a, an) este folosit, ca si in limba romana, numai cu sunstantive la numarul singular si arata ca substantivul respectiv reprezinta o fiinta sau un obiect oarecare dintr-o categorie sau clasa:
Broadway is a very long street.
John is a good student.
Nota: Tot ca in limba romana, articolul nehotarat poate avea sens de numeral:
I have an english dictionary and two French ones.
a) Spre deosebire de limba romana, in engleza articolul nehotarat se foloseste inaintea substantivelor nume predicative care arata profesia, calitatea, gradul, sexul cuiva:
She is a teacher.
I speak to you as a friend.
Peter is a boy.
b) dupa anumite adverbe sau adjective ca: rather, quite, such, many, what (in propozitii exclamative):
Such a funny fellow. (Un individ atat de nostim.)
Quitean old man. (Un om batran de-a binelea.)
many a writer (multi scriitori)
What a pleasant surprise ! (Ce surpriza placuta!)
c) pentru a exprima raportul de frecventa sau distributie in unele unitati de masura, timp etc.:
We have English classes twice (once) a week. (Avem ore de engleza de doua ori /o data/ pe saptamana.)
I didn't see her for a long time. (Nu am vazut-o de mult.)
Nota: Observati locul articolului in: half a mile, half an hour.
d) in unele constructii si expresii, ca:
to be in a hurry - a fi grabit
it is a pity - e pacat
as a friend - ca prieten
to have a tootache, headache, a sore throat, etc. - a te durea maseaua, capul, in gat etc.
3) Cazuri in care nu se foloseste articolul:
a) Ca si in limba romana, articolul (hotarat sau nehotarat) nu se foloseste cu nume proprii de persoane, continente, tari, regiuni, localitati (exceptand unele tari amintite mai sus si orasul Haga (the Hague)). De asemenea, cu unele substantive care desemneaza relatii de rudenie si sunt asimilate de membrii familiei cu nume proprii: Father, Mother, Grannie.
b) Spre deosebire de limba romana insa, nu se articuleaza numele anotimpurilor, lunilor, zilelor, precum si al meselor din timpul zilei:
December is my favourite month. (Decembrie e luna mea preferata.)
I like autumn ; in autumn there is a lot of fruit. (Imi place toamna; toamna sunt multe fructe.)
Breakfast will be ready in a quarter of an hour. (Micul dejun va fi gata intr-un sfert de ora.)
c) Articolele nu se folosesc nici cu substantive luate in sensul lor cel mai general, cum sunt:
- nume de materii, substante, alimente etc.:
Steel is a hard metal. (Otelul e un metal dur.)
- nume de abstractiuni:
We stand for peace and friendship. (Suntem pentru pace si prietenie.)
- substantive la plural:
New-York is made up of small towns, villages and settlements.
- unele substantive individuale la singular (man, woman, mankind, society, school, church, market, bed, board):
School plays a great role in society. (Scoala joaca un mare rol in societate.)
d) Isi pierd articolul si substantivele care intra in unele expresii si locutiuni, chiar in cazul cand sunt precedate de prepozitii:
side by side (unul langa altul) ;
for miles on end (pe distanta de mile intregi) ;
in height (ca inaltime) ;
in style (ca linie, ca stil) ;
to go by tram /bus/ (a merge cu tramvaiul /autobuzul/) ;
on foot (pe jos) ;
from day to day (din zi in zi) ;
at night (noaptea) ;
hand in hand (mana in mana) ;
shoulder to shoulder (umar la umar) ;
to shake hands (a da mana) ;
to change colour (a-si schimba culoarea) etc.
4) Omisiunea articolului:
Unele substantive pot aparea nearticulate datorita omisiunii articolului. Aceasta se face de obicei pentru motive stilistice si apare adesea in stilul ziaristic, in indicatii scenice, in comunicari cu caracter telegrafic etc. In asemenea cazuri insa, articolul poate fi oricand introdus la locul cuvenit, in timp ce in cazurile de nefolosire a articolului, adaugarea lui ar fi o greseala gramaticala:
Heath: End of Talks. (Heath anunta sfarsitul convorbirilor.)
Wind. Dusk. Autumn scenery. (Vant. Amurg. Peisaj de toamna.)
Functiile sintactice ale participiului nedefinit
Participiul nedefinit poate indeplini urmatoarele functii sintactice:
1) Atribut sau inlocuitor al unei propozitii atributive:
The falling leaves covered the roofs and the ground. (Frunzele cazatoare /care cadeau/ acopereau acoperisurile si solul.)
How beautiful the blooming trees are! (Ce frumosi sunt pomii in floare!)
Here is a letter announcing his arrival. (Iata o scrisoare care anunta sosirea lui.)
2) Nume predicativ:
The noise of the crowd was deafening. (Zgomotul multimii era asurzitor.)
The girl stood looking at the crowd. (Fata statea uitandu-se la multime.)
3) Complement circumstantial:
a) de timp, introdus prin conjunctiile while sau when sau fara conjunctie:
While approaching Stratford we saw beautiful woods and green fields.
(Apropiindu-ne /cand ne-am apropiat/ de Stratford am vazut paduri frumoase si campii inverzite.)
Arriving at Stratford they went to see Shakespeare's birthplace.
(Sosind /cand au sosit/ la Stratford s-au dus sa vada locul unde s-a nascut Shakespeare.)
b) de mod sau de imprejurari insotitoare:
She stood by the window, thinking. (Statea langa fereastra gandindu-se.)
c) de cauza:
Having plenty of time, we did not hurry. (Avand timp suficient nu ne-am grabit.)
Functiile sintactice ale gerunziului in propozitie
Gerunziul indeplineste urmatoarele functii:
1) Subiect:
Swimming is very popular in our country. (Inotul e foarte raspandit in tara noastra.)
2) Nume predicativ, facand parte dintr-un predicat verbal compus, dupa verbe ca: to begin, to start, to continue, to go on, to keep (on) - a continua, to stop, to finish etc.:
Sharon started combing her hair. (Sharon a inceput sa-si pieptene parul.)
Keep smiling! (Nu-ti pierde buna dispozitie! ; textual: Continua sa zambesti!)
Stop talking! (Nu mai vorbiti! ; textual: Incetati vorbitul!)
Haven't you finished doing those translations yet? (N-ai terminat inca de facut traducerile acelea?)
3) Complement prepozitional (a) dupa verbe si (b) adjective cu prepozitie obligatorie:
a) Jim succeeded in buying the beautiful combs. (Jim a reusit sa cumpere pieptenii cei frumosi.)
I thought of going to see my friend today. (Ma gandeam sa ma duc sa-l vad azi pe prietenul meu.)
Thank you for coming. (Multumesc ca ai venit.)
b) She was proud of having such a good husband. (Ea era mandra ca are un sot atat de bun.)
Della was surprised at seeing the new t-shirt. (Della a fost uimita vazand tricoul cel nou.)
4) Complement direct dupa verbe ca: to avoid, to prefer, to enjoy, to want, to remember, to forget, to hate, to love, to like, to need, to postpone, to mind (a supara, a deranja):
Avoid making so many mistakes. (Evitati sa faceti atatea greseli.)
He loves driving in a fast car. (Ii place sa mearga cu o masina cu viteza mare.)
Do you mind shutting the door? (Nu vreti sa inchideti usa?)
Nota1: Cateva din aceste verbe ca: to love, to like, to hate, to prefer, to forget, to remember, to want pot fi urmate si de infinitive.
Nota2: Gerunziul se foloseste si dupa expresiile: can't help (nu pot sa nu, nu ma pot impiedica), to be worth (a merita), to be busy (a fi ocupat cu), to be fond of (a-i placea foarte mult):
O. Henry's short stories are worth reading. (Nuvelele lui O. Henry merita sa fie citite.)
I can't help buying these delicious chocolates. (Nu pot sa nu cumpar aceste delicioase bomboane de ciocolata.)
5) Complement circumstantial de timp dupa prepozitiile: after, before, upon (on):
After resting a little I had my tea. (Dupa ce m-am odihnit putin am baut ceaiul.)
Before going to bed I read a few pages. (Inainte de a ma duce la culcare am citit cateva pagini.)
6) Atribut folosit dupa substantive cu prepozitie obligatorie (in general of):
She had no hope of getting such a beautiful present. (Nu spera sa capete un cadou atat de frumos.)
There was no chance of going to the river that day. (Nu era nici o posibilitate sa mergem la rau in ziua aceea.)
Locul complementelor circumstantiale in propozitie
A. Complementul circumstantial de timp (The Adverbial Modifier of Time):
1) In general, complementul circumstantial de timp definit se aseaza la inceputul sau la sfarsitul propozitiei si nu poate desparti verbul de complementul sau direct:
The teacher helps the students in time of need. (Profesorul ajuta studentii la nevoie.)
In the afternoon we went to see the river. (Dupa amiaza mergeam sa vedem raul.)
After eleven o'clock the reading room was empty. (Dupa ora 11 sala de lectura era goala.)
2) Complementul circumstantial de timp nedefinit si frecventa (Adverbs of Indefinite Time) (always, never, sometimes, often, seldom, frequently, usually, ever, still etc.) ocupa urmatoarele pozitii:
a) inaintea verbului, cand acesta este la un timp simplu:
I usually work in my room or take part in some sport. (De obicei lucrez la mine in camera sau fac sport.)
b) dupa verbul to be si verbele modale:
The shopping centre is always crowded. (Centrul comercial este mereu aglomerat.)
The students must never come late. (Studentii nu trebuie sa intarzie niciodata.)
c) intre auxiliar si verbul principal, cand acesta este la un timp compus; intre cele doua auxiliare cand verbul principal este la un timp compus cu mai multe auxiliare:
I have often listened to the noise of the wind in the trees. (Am ascultat adesea suierul vantului prin copaci.)
Have you ever loved a man?
The Proctor would never have chased the student if he had not tried to escape. ("Proctorul" nu ar fi urmarit pe student daca acesta n-ar fi incercat sa scape.) ; proctor = membru al consiliului de disciplina in universitatile engleze
Nota: Adverbul sometimes poate fi asezat la inceputul sau la sfarsitul propozitiei:
Sometimes he couldn't sleep for hours (sometimes).
B. Complementul circumstantial de loc (The Adverbial Modifier of Place)
1) Complementul circumstantial de loc se aseaza , in general, la inceputul sau la sfarsitul propozitiei si nu poate desparti verbul de complementul sau direct:
I found the way to the river. (Am gasit calea spre rau.)
In the centre of the town is the market-place. (In centrul orasului este piata.)
You sit here! (Sezi aici!)
2) Complementul circumstantial de loc (1) se aseaza inaintea celui de timp (2):
I'm going to the theatre (1) on Saturday (2). Let's go together. (Intentionez sa merg la teatru sambata. Sa mergem impreuna.)
I go to the discotheque (1) each week (2). (Merg la discoteca in fiecare saptamana.)
C. Complementul circumstantial de mod (The Adverbial Modifier of Manner)
Se aseaza dupa verb, daca acesta nu e urmat de un complement direct, sau dupa complementul direct, daca acesta este scurt (a). El preceda verbul cand complementul direct este lung (b):
a) The river flows slowly and calmy. (Raul curge incet si linistit.)
He speaks English and French fluently. (El vorbeste engleza si franceza fluent.)
b) He quickly put down the few sentences the teacher dictated. (A notat repede cele cateva propozitii pe care le-a dictat profesorul.)
The student carefully selected the data he nedeed for his essay. (Studentul a selectionat cu grija datele de care avea nevoie pentru eseul sau.)
Nota: Adverbele really, probably, scarcely (abia), hardly, nearly (aproximativ), almost, even, strongly etc. se aseaza in propozitie conform regulilor adverbelor de timp nedefinit:
He could hardly eat anything. (Nu putea manca mai nimic.)
They have really gone there. (S-au dus intr-adevar acolo.)
He had almost fallen asleep. (Aproape adormise.)
Formarea cuvintelor in limba engleza
Principalele mijloace de formare a cuvintelor in limba engleza sunt:
1) Afixatia (Affixation) - formarea de cuvinte noi prin adaugarea unor prefixe (a) sau sufixe (b):
a) undergraduate (student) ; underground (subteran) ; misprint (greseala de tipar) ; to disregard (a dispretui) ; supersonic
b) teacher ; runner ; tourist ; stewardess ; Japanese ; Canadian ; development ; liberation ; friendship ; childhood (copilarie) ; freedom ; useful ; peaceful ; careless ; friendly ; daily ; monthly ; answerable (corespunzator, responsabil) ; defensive ; to modernize ; to shorten etc.
2) Conversia (Conversion) - schimbarea categoriei gramaticale, procedeu extrem de frecvent in limba engleza:
graduate = absolvent ; to graduate = a absolvi
catalogue = catalog ; to catalogue = a cataloga
comb = peptene ; to comb = a pieptana
word = cuvant ; to word = a exprima in cuvinte
to drive = a conduce un vehicul ; a drive = o plimbare cu un vehicul
to sob = a plange cu suspine ; a sob = un suspin
to drink = a bea ; a drink = o bautura
3) Compunerea (Composition) - formarea de cuvinte compuse prin unirea a doua sau mai multe cuvinte simple. Procedeul e foarte productiv in engleza contemporana (numeroase parti de cuvant se pot combina prin compunere pentru a forma cuvinte noi):
a) substantive compuse:
market-place = piata
horse-shoe = potcoava
tea-shop = ceainarie
dining-hall = sala de mese
skating-rink = patinoar
common-sense = bun simt
faint-heart = fricos
high-brow = intelectual snob
b) adjective compuse:
man-made = facut de om
hand-knitted = tricotat de mana
tongue-tied = amutit, mut
c) verbe compuse:
to daydream = a visa cu ochii deschisi
to whitewash = a varui
4) Unele cuvinte (substantive si adjective) se formeaza prin combinarea celor doua procedee: compozitie si afixatie:
substantive: left-hander = stangaci
sight-seer = vizitator, turist
adjective: deep-coloured = de culoare inchisa
well-dressed = bine imbracat
broad-shouldered = lat in umeri
long-legged = cu picioare lungi
two-roomed = cu doua camere
lion-hearted = curajos (cu inima de leu)
eagle-eyed = cu ochi ageri
Vorbirea directa si indirecta
Pentru a trece propozitiile principale din vorbirea directa in vorbire indirecta se aplica urmatoarele reguli, tinandu-se seama de felul propozitiilor (enuntiative, interogative si imperative):
1) Propozitia enuntiativa:
a) Se introduce prin conjunctia that , sau direct, omitandu-se conjunctia:
She says: "I am so happy."
She says (that) she is so happy.
b) Pronumele personale, posesive, reflexive si adjectivul posesiv isi modifica persoana dupa sens:
She says: "I am so happy."
She says that she is so happy.
They say: "We are ready."
They say that they are ready.
c) Daca predicatul propozitiei introductive este la un timp trecut, timpul verbelor in vorbirea indirecta se modifica potrivit regulilor de corespondenta a timpurilor:
- prezentul se transforma in Past Tense:
"I'm all right " he said.
He said that he was all right.
- Present Perfect se transforma in Past Perfect:
They said: "The boy has refused to let anyone come into the room."
They said that the boy had refused to let anyone come into the room.
- Past Tense devine Past Perfect:
He said: "At school in France the boys told me....."
He said that at school in France the boys had told him.....
Nota: In unele cazuri, Past Tense se pastreaza:
She said: "Mother died in 1930."
She said her mother died in 1930.
- Past Perfect nu se schimba:
He said: "I had finished everything by five o'clock."
He said that he had finished everything by five o'clock.
- Future Indefinitive se transforma in Future-in-the-Past:
He said: "I shall come and see you as soon as I can."
He said that he would come and see me as soon as he could.
d) Propozitiile enuntiative sunt introduse prin verbe declarative sau echivalentele lor: to say, to say to si to tell (cand se arata si persoana careia ne adresam), to think, to answer, to reply, to add etc.
2) Propozitia interogativa:
a) Se introduce prin conjunctia if sau whether (daca intrebarea are un caracter general) sau se pastreaza acelasi cuvant interogativ din vorbirea directa (daca intrebarea are un caracter special):
- intrebari generale:
"Are you sure?" the boy said.
The boy asked me if (whether) I was sure.
"Do you want me to read to you?" I asked him.
I asked him if (whether) he wanted me to read to him.
- intrebari speciale:
"How do you feel, John?" I asked.
I asked him how he felt.
"Why don't you try to go to sleep?" I asked.
I asked him why he did not try to go to sleep.
b) Nu se mai face inversiunea subiectului cu predicatul deoarece propozitia devine enuntiativa. Se renunta la folosirea auxiliarului to do:
The boy said: "Do you think I am going to die?"
The boy asked his father if he thought he was going to die.
I asked: "Are you all right?"
I asked him if he was all right.
c) Persoana se schimba dupa sens:
"Where have you been?" he asked.
He asked where I had been.
I asked her: "Are you really ill?"
He asked her if she was really ill.
d) Se respecta regulile corespondentei timpurilor cand propozitia introductiva e la un timp trecut:
He asked: "What are you afraid of?"
He asked me what I was afraid of.
He asked: "Did you return my bicycle?"
He asked me if I had returned his bicycle.
e) Propozitiile interogative sunt introduse prin verbele: to ask, to inquire (a intreba), to wonder (a se intreba) etc.
3) Propozitia imperativa:
a) Modul imperativ se transforma in infinitiv:
"You go up to bed!" I said.
I told him to go up to bed.
"Don't come in!" he said.
He told me not to come in.
b) Propozitiile imperative sunt introduse prin verbe care exprima un ordin, o rugamainte, o cerere:
to order,
to tell,
to ask,
to command,
to beg,
to request,
to advise,
to suggest,
to allow etc.
Constructia for ... to (The for - Phrase)
It would be natural for him to go to sleep.
(Ar fi normal /natural/ ca sa adoarma.)
Constructia for him to go este formata din prepozitia for, un pronume sau un substantiv in cazul acuzativ, si un infinitiv lung. In limba engleza, astfel de constructii sunt destul de frecvente, ele avand diferite functii in propozitie. In exemplul de mai sus, constructia for him to go to sleep are functia de subiect, introdus cu ajutorul pronumelui it. Constructia for ... to apare frecvent in aceasta functie dupa expresiile: it is natural,it is possible, it is necessary, it is hard, it is easy, it is strange etc.:
It is hard for him to do it. (Ii este greu sa faca aceasta.)
It is possible for them to start earlier. (E posibil ca ei sa porneasca mai devreme.)
It isn't necessary for you to make arrangements beforehand. (Nu e necesar ca sa aranjezi /totul/ dinainte.)
Nota: Aceeasi constructie apare si cu alte functii sintactice:
The only thing for him to do was to leave at once. (atribut) (Singurul lucru pe care putea sa-l faca era sa plece imediat.)
This passage is for you to translate. (nume predicativ) (Acest fragment iti revine tie de tradus.)
We made room for him to pass. (complement circumstantial de scop) (I-am facut loc sa treaca.)
Acuzativul cu infinitive
What do you expect me to think of that speech? (Ce va asteptati sa cred despre aceste cuvinte?)
I advice you not to beinsolent. (Va sfatuiesc sa nu fiti obraznic.)
The spectators watched the curtain rise slowly. (Spectatorii priveau cortina ridicandu-se /cum se ridica/ incet.)
Did you see them get off the train? (I-ai vazut dandu-se /cum s-au dat/ jos din tren?)
Acuzativul cu infinitivul este o constructie formata dintr-un substantiv sau pronume in cazul acuzativ si un infinitiv scurt sau lung. Infinitivul are functia predicativa pe langa substantivul sau pronumele in acuzativ. Infinitivul este cerut de verbul tranzitiv dupa care se foloseste aceasta constructie. Acuzativul cu infinitivul se traduce in limba romana printr-un complement direct sau printr-o propozitie completiva directa.
Infinitivul scurt se foloseste dupa verbele care exprima: o perceptie a simturilor (to see, to feel, to hear, to notice, to observe, to watch) si dupa verbele to make (a determina, a face sa) si to let (a lasa):
I shall make him speak. (Am sa-l fac sa vorbeasca.)
Don't let her keep the book too long. (N-o lasa sa tina cartea prea mult.)
I saw the children play in the garden. (Am vazut copiii jucandu-se in gradina.)
I shall hear him sing tonight. (Il voi auzi cantand diseara.)
Infinitivul lung (cu particula to) se foloseste dupa verbele care exprima o activitate a intelectului (to think, to consider, to know, to believe, to expect, to understand etc.) ; un sentiment (to like, to dislike, to hate, to prefer etc.) ; vointa sau intentia (to want, to wish, to desire, to mean, to intend etc.) ; un ordin, o permisiune (to order, to require, to permit, to allow, to force etc.):
She considers the text to be difficult. (Socoteste ca textul e greu.)
I thought him to be a good expert. (Am crezut ca e un expert bin.)
I like her to read to me. (Imi place sa-mi citeasca.)
We wants this song to be recorded. (Vrem ca acest cantec sa fie inregistrat.)
Complex gerund
I object to Lord North's robbing me. (Ma opun ca lordul North sa ma jefuiasca.)
If you excuse my saying so. (Iertati-ma ca ma exprim asa.)
In exemplele de mai sus, gerunziul este precedat de un substantiv in cazul genitiv (Lord North's robbing) si de un adjectiv posesiv (my saying). Substantivul in cazul genitiv si adjectivul posesiv indeplinesc functia de subiect logic pe langa gerunziu.
O astfel de constructie poate avea urmatoarele functii:
a) Subiect:
Your asking so many questions annoyed him.
(Faptul ca i-ai pus atatea intrebari l-a suparat.)
b) Complement direct:
Do you mind my smoking here?
(Va deranjeaza daca /eu/ fumez aici?)
c) Atribut:
He does not like the idea of our leaving so soon.
(Nu-i convine /place/ ideea ca /noi/ sa plecam asa curand.)
d) Complement circumstantial:
Passive Voice
a fi la timpul cerut + forma a III a a verbului de conjugat
Present Simple : The room is cleaned every day.
Present Continuous : It is being cleaned.
Past Tense Simple: It was cleaned.
Past Tense Continuous: It was being cleaned.
Present Perfect: It has been cleaned.
Past Perfect: It had been cleaned.
Future : It will be cleaned.
Present conditional: It would be cleaned.
Past Conditional: It would have been cleaned.
Infinitive: to be cleaned
Trecerea din diateza activa in diateza pasiva:
Mary gives mother a flower
Mother is given a flower by Mary
S P CI CD CI P S CD
NOTA: CI sau CD din propozitia activa devine subiectul propozitiei pasive.Complementul de agent (the doer) poate sa lipseasca atunci cand e exprimat printr-un pronume personal (I,you), pronume nehotarat (somebody, anybody) sau substantive ca: a boy, some people
NOTA: verbele cu prepozitie isi pastreaza prepozitia alaturi din in diateza pasiva.
Ex: You can rely on this man. This man can be relied on.
NOTA:
People say that he is a good...
It is said that he is a...
He is said to be...
People think that he was a...
It is thought that he was a...
He is thought to have been a...
NOTA: infinitivul prezent arata ca o actiune este simultana; infinitivul perfect arata ca atiunea este anterioara.
We must settle everything before his leaving the town.
(Trebuie sa aranjam totul inainte ca el sa plece din oras.)
Past Perfect
Afirmativ S+had+V (forma a treia)
Negativ S+had+not+V (forma a treia)
Interogativ-Negativ Hadn’t+S+V (forma a treia)
Question-Tag They had already entered, hadn’t they?
1)Este o actiune terminata in trecut inaintea altei actiuni tot din trecut cu: since, for, how long, just, already, yet, after, before, as soon as, etc.
2)Cu: hardly/scarcely/barely(numai doar),…when
Ex:I had hardly got on the bus when it started.Hardly had I got on the bus when it started.
Cu:no sooner…then
Past Perfect Continuous
Afirmativ S+had+been+V (-ing)
Interogativ had+S+been+V (-ing)
Negativ S+had+not+been+V (-ing)
Interogativ-Negativ had+S+not+been
Este o actiune in desfasurare in trecut, inaintea altei actiuni, tot din trecut.
Cu: since, for, how long
Past Tense Simple
Afirmativ S+V(-ed)
S+V (forma a II a)
Interogativ did+S+V (inf.scurt)
Negativ S+did+not+V (inf. scurt)
Interogativ-Negativ did+S+not+V (inf. scurt)
Question-tag They left yesterday, didn’t he?
1.Este o actiune terminata in trecut cu: as, when, then, yesterday, last week, last month, last year, that day, the other day, once in 1983, on Sunday, ago, etc.
2.Este o actiune obisnuita, repetata in trecut.In acest caz se foloseste used to pentru actiune incetata in prezent
Nota: este timpul naratiunii la trecut si se traduce prin perfect simplu, perfect compus, imperfect, conditional prezent, conjunctiv perfect.
Past Tense Continuous
Afirmativ S+was/were+V (-ing)
Interogativ was/were+S+V (-ing)
Negativ S+was/were+not+V
Interogativ-Negativ wasn’t/weren’t+S+V (-ing)
Question-Tag They were reading at this time yesterday, weren’t they?
1)Este o actiune in desfasurare intr-un anumit moment in trecut cu: at this time yesterday, yesterday at 5 o’clock,… when he came, etc.
2)E folosit pentru a exprima iritare, indignare
Present Perfect Simple
Afirmativ S+have/has+V (forma a treia )
Interogativ have/has+S+V (forma a treia)
Negativ S+have/has+not+V (forma a treia)
Interogativ-Negativ have/has+S+not+V (forma a treia)
Question-tag They haven’t arrived yet, have they?
1)Este o actiune inceputa in trecut si continuata pana in momentul vorbirii cu: since, for, how long
2)Este o actiune petrecuta intr-un moment neprecizat(se simte efectul)
Ex: I have washed my blouse (it is clean)
3)Este o actiune care tocmai a avut loc
# just, already dupa auxiliar
yet in intrebare=deja ma informez; in negatie=inca
yet apare la sfarsitul propozitiei
#till, now, up to now, so far, until now, up to the present moment la sfarsit sau la inceput de propozitie
#lately(in ultima vreme),recently, of late, latterly numai la sfarsit propozitiei
#during the last week, the last few days, theese twenty minutes
4) O actiune petrecuta intr-o perioada de timp care nu s-a terminat inca: today, this week, this month, this year, this sommer, all day, all night, etc.
5)cu adverbe de frecventa: ever, never, seldom, often, sometimes, several times, etc.
6)In propozitiile circumstantiale de timp si propozitiile conditionale de tip 1- viitorul este inlocuit cu Present Perfect Simple pentru actiune prioritara anterioara
Present Perfect Continuous
Afirmativ S+have/have+been+V (-ing)
Interogativ Have/has+S+been+V (-ing)
Negativ S+have/has+not+been+V (-ing)
Interogativ-Negativ Have/has+S+not+been
Este o actiune inceputa in trecut, este in desfasurare in momentul vorbirii si actiunea pleaca spre viitor.Cu: since, for, how long
Present Simple Tense
Afirmativ S+V (pers. a-III-a : -s,-es, -o, -ss, -ch, -sh)
Interogativ do/does+S+V (inf.scurt)
Negativ S+do/does+not+V (inf.scurt)
Interogativ-Negativ (Don’t you?) do/does+S+not+V (inf.scurt)
Question-Tag (Nu-i asa?) She goes there every day, doesn’t she?
1.Este o actiune obisnuita, repetata, permanenta.
# very day, every week, etc. pozitia: la sfarsit sau la inceput de propozitie
# ussualy, often, seldom, always, sometimes, generaly, never, okkasionaly, etc. pozitia: dupa subiect
# from time to time, once a week, twice a week, etc. pozitia: numai la sfarsitul propozitiei
2.Exprima un adevar general valabil.
3.Apare in: comentarii, retete, demonstratii, indicatii scenice, titluri de articole, etc.
4.Este o modalitate de exprimare a unui program oficial
Ex:We start a new term at school tomorrow
5.In propozitii circumstantiale de timp (when, while, after, before, as soon as, till, until ) si conditional tip 1 viitorul este inlocuit cu prezentul simplu pentru actiune simultana
Ex: I shall go to Bucharest if I have money.
Present Continuous Tense
Afirmativ S+to be(present)+V-ing
Interogativ to be+S+V-ing
Negativ S+to be+not+V-ing
Interogativ-Negativ to be+S+not+V-ing
Question-Tag She is reading now, isn’t she? I am disturbing you, aren’t I?
1.Este o actiune in desfasurare in momentul vorbirii cu: now, at this moment, just(now), etc.
2.Arata ca o actiune este temporara
3.Este o modalitate de exprimare a viitorului ca urmare a unui program personal
Ex: I’m visiting my grandparents this week.
4.Arata ca o actiune este prea des repetata, si supara, irita vorbitorul cu often, forever, generaly, constantly, never, etc.
Ex: This child is forever crying.
Nota: verbele to grow si to get arata trecerea de la o stare la alta
Ex: It is getting dark.My parents are growing older and older.
Verbe care nu se folosesc la aspectul continuu
1)Verbe de perceptie: to feel, to hear, to notice, to see, to smell, to taste
2)Verbe care exprima o activitate mintala: to agree, to believe, to distrust, to doubt, to find, to foresee, to forget, to guess, to imagine, to know, to mean, to mind, to remember, to recognize, to recollect, to regard, to suppose, to think (that) , to trust, to understand
3)Verbe care exprima o dorinta: to desire, to intend, to want, to wish, etc.
4)Verbe care exprima o posesie: to belong, to have, to hold, to keep, to owe, to own, to possess
5)Verbe care exprima atitudini, sentimente, stari emotionale: to abhor, to adore, to detest, to dislike, to displease, to like, to love, to hate, to please, to prefer, etc.
6)Verbe care exprima o stare, o conditie: to appear, to be, to consist(of), to contain, to differ, to deserve, to equal, to exist, to resemble, to seem, to suit
Semnificatia semnelor "+" si "-" este: "+" inseamna ca se foloseste la aspectul continuu, "-" inseamna contrarul.
to see - to perceive
+ to meet, to visit, to interview
to expect - to hope , to believe
+ to wait for
to think - to believe, to give an opinion
+ to think of / about
to have - to possess
+ to take a bath, a shower, lunch, breakfast
+ a face pe cineva sa faca ceva pentru tine(verb cauzativ)
Ex: I’m having my house painted
to be - to exist
+ comportare temporara
Ex: You are being rude today
Ordinea cuvintelor in propozitie este: S+P+CD/CI+CM+CL+CT
The Subjunctive
A.The synthetical subjunctive
1.The Present Subjunctive
• Este identic cu infinitivul scurt al verbului, este socotit vechi, pretentios si nu se foloseste in limba contemporana
• Apare in urari(expresii fixe)
Far be it from me! (departe de mine)
Heaven
Be that as it may!
Suffice it to say that...
Good bye!(God be with you!)
God forgive/bless you!
• Apare dupa impresii impersonale
It is natural that they should come! It is natural that they come.
• Dupa advise, to recommend...should
They suggest that he should read.
They suggest him to read.
They suggest that he read.
2.The Past Present Subjunctive
• Identic cu Past Tense –ul verbului (to be/were)
• Apare dupa constructii ipotetice
• In conditional tip II
3.The Past Perfect Subjunctive
• Identic cu Past Perfect-ul verbului
• Apare dupa wish, if only, as if, as thought, even if, even thought
B.The Analythical Subjunctive
• Format dintr-un verb modal(shall, should, would, may, mught, could)
• Este mai des folosit si apare atat in propozitia secundara cat si in propozitia principala.
Shall+infinitiv
Prozitia principala Propozitia secundara
Shall I help you? (oferta) Amenintare (informal english)
Should+infinitiv
Propozitia principala Propozitia secundara
Why should I go there? In conditional tip I si II
Dupa constructii ipotetice
In completiva directa
In propozitia de scop
May/might+infinitiv
Propozitia principala Propozitia secundara
exprima o urare:
May all your dreams come true!
Oh, that they might win! Dupa constructii impersonale: it is/was possible, probable, likely
In propozitia concesiva
In propozitia de scop
Would+infinitiv
In propozitia secundara dupa wish si if only
Could+infinitiv
Exprima scopul ca o alternativa a lui may/might, could avand un grad mai mare de siguranta
I studied so that I might pass the exam (but I didn’t).
I studied so that I could pass the exam (I am a student).
Modal verbs
Conceptul de capacitate, posibilitate, necesitate sau obligatie este redat de asa numitele "modal auxiliary verbs" :
can,
could,
shall,
should,
must,
need,
ought to,
used to,
dare.
Caracteristici:
• Nu au infinitiv lung
• Nu primesc "s" la persoana a III a singular prezent simplu
• Nu primesc "-ing"
• Verbele care urmeaza sunt la infinitiv scurt; excceptie: used to, ought to
• Nu au toate timpurile si modurile unui verb normal, de aceea unele au echivalenti
• Formeaza interogativul prin inversiune; negativul + not
Can-could to be able to
May-might (numai in Indirect Speech) to be allowed to; to be permited to
Must to have to
Verbe modale (click pe link-uri)
• Will Shall Can Could May Might Must Need Should Ought to Would Used to
• Dare
Direct-Indirect Speech
A. Daca in propozitia principala verbul to say, to tell, etc.(reported verbes) sunt la prezent, in propozitia secundara (completiva directa) se pune orice timp cerut de inteles.
B. Daca reported verbs sunt la trecut in completiva directa au loc schimbari la nivel de pronume, adverb si verb
Pronume
I he/she
we they
my his/her
our their
this that
these those
Adverb
Here there
Now then
Today that day
Tonight that night
Tomorrow the next day
the following day
Yesterday the day before
the previous day
Ago before
Next the next
the day after tomorrow in two day time
the day before yesterday two days before
Verb
Present simple Past simple
Present continuous Past continuous
Present perfect Past perfect
Past tense Past perfect
Futur Futur in the past
Imperative Infinitive
NOTA: prezentul simplu poate ramane neschimbat atunci cand exprima un adevar general valabil sau o actiune valabila si in prezent.
NOTA: If poate fi inlocuit cu whether atunci cand exprima o indoiala sau posibilitatea unei alegeri.
Ex: ’Shall I help you?’ he said. He said whether I should help him.
NOTA: Intrebarile...
a. ‘Do you speak english?’ he asked. He asked me if I spoke english.
b. ‘How are you?’ she said. She said how I was.
NOTA: imperativul cu let :
Singular I Let me go!
II Go!
III Let him/her/it go!
Plural I Let us go! (Let’s)
II Go!
III Let them go!
Ex: "Let’s go", he said. He sugested that they should go.
NOTA: exclamatiile
"What a ...! "
She said it was ...
"How a ...!"
"My goodness!"
She exclaimed with horror/disgust/surprise
"Oh dear!"
"Heavens!"
"Ugh!"
"For goodness sake!"
"Look out!!"
"Thank you!" He thanked me
"Good morning!"
She greeted me
She wished me a...
"Liar!" She called me a liar.
"Damn!" She swore...
NOTA: Conditional tip II si III raman neschimbate.
